Food studies, a relatively new field that aims to investigate both historical and modern associations between conflict and food, provide the best explanation for the relationship between food intake and its relationship to conflict resolution. Studies of food go beyond the culinary, nutritional, or digestive elements to include the aesthetic enjoyment of food. In addition to mediation and charity administration, food sciences also include economics, education, and health. (Almerico). The relationship between individuals, communities, and food whether from a social or scientific perspective has helped to reveal new or hidden information regarding their cultural omnivorousness (Goldberg, Hannan, and Kovács). The information revealed by food preferences include personalities, assumptions, knowledge, passions and individual beliefs (Hauck-Lawson). According to Hauck-Lawson food is a voice that communicates to the outside world using nonverbal cues, telling the stories of individual preferences, helping to forge partnerships and bonds between different cultures; thus indirectly contributing to conflict resolution and conflict management.
According to Hauck-Lawson, what a person chooses to eat or not to eat communicates one's emotion and identity largely than verbal cues. The consumption of different cuisines silently and sometimes loudly tell the stories of changes over time, resistance, assimilation and migration (Almerico). This is particularly the case in the American culture. However, the construct that there is an existing melting pot in American cuisines is largely a myth. This is because what mainly exists is a cultural melting pot of various cultures comprising of diverse eating preferences. This is because most of the different cultures in the US today do not view food in such a monolithic perspective because each culture has assimilated foods from different regions. For instance, Italian, Chinese, Mexican, and French cuisines feature foods from different regions because these countries were exposed to agricultural hardship that necessitated the adoption of rotational food crops (Choi). This explains why eating rice and buckwheat defines what it means to be Japanese (Severson et al.). Consuming beans, wheat, and lentils represent an essential ingredient in French cuisines. On the other hand, the American cuisine is different hardship (Choi). However, American cuisines have been significantly influenced by immigration.
Before 1920, Europeans constituted the largest segment of immigrants to the US. However, in the late 20th century, Asians and Latin Americans represented the largest share of immigrants; with time Hispanic foods gained widespread acceptance among the American public. At the same time, Asian and Japanese restaurants were established across the US (Connor). The exposure to Asian and Hispanic foods contributed to the enhancement of racial relations because of cross-fertilization. Besides, ethnic intermarriage (Rosenfeld) and tourism among other activities exposed Americans to exotic cuisines that helped in building trust and resolving the conflict between the new immigrant communities and American citizens. On the other hand, the emergence of US food conglomerates such as McDonalds and Pizza Hut in Europe helped to nurture the taste of fried chicken, pizza, and hamburgers among the Europeans (Connor).
Purpose Statement and Interdisciplinary Rationale
Food studies help humans to challenge their long-held beliefs regarding food and everyday life and to search more inquisitively for deeper meaning in the common practice of eating. Besides, food studies also allow human beings to appreciate themselves and others as well on a much broader scale. Finally, food culture is a tool which can be employed to negate stereotypes that are often the catalysts to conflict and help humans to seek acceptance regardless of one’s geographic, racial, cultural or religious affiliation.
Literature Review
From a broader context, food culture encompasses various facets such as the patterns through which humans feed. The selection of foods, the means used to gather and distribute the foods, preparation, serving and the ultimate eating of the food and the effects associated with the consumption of certain foods (Tellström, Gustafsson, and Mossberg; Kulkarni; Loring and Gerlach). Food culture is unique to human beings. Kittler et al. sought to understand why much creativity, money, and time spent on food and why a person is what he or she consumes. The study led to the emergence of new questions such as; what do the foods consumed by different cultures signify? How does the food culture dictate personal identity?
Previous studies have established a strong correlation between the foods that individuals consume self-perception; and how they are perceived by persons from other cultures. A study conducted by Sadella et al. established that some foods were unique to some eating habits and cultures. In specific, fast foods such as French fries, burgers, pizza, and grilled chicken. Artificial foods such as noodles and sugar; vegetarian brown rice, wheat, vegetables, and fruits and healthy foods such as wheat germ and yogurt and seafood were an indicator of the different personalities of the individuals that consumed them.
Additionally, the study noted that those who consumed synthetic and fast foods belonged to the group of religious conservatives. Besides, this group was more likely to wear clothing made of polyester (Sadella and Burroughs). Democrats and antinuclear activists were more likely to consume healthy foods while pacifists ate vegetarian diets and liberals consumed gourmet foods such as seafood (Sadella and Burroughs). From the description provided above, it was deduced that humans have naturally developed varied stereotypes based on what one eats. To determine whether the outcomes obtained by Sadella were indeed an accurate reflection of the food culture, a study by Stein and Nemeroff was used in the comparative analysis (Stein and Nemeroff). The study by Stein and Nemeroff sampled university students who were asked to rate persons in an image based on diet. The students were expected to classify the person as either a consumer of good food or bad food. Accordingly, it was noted that favorable ratings were given to individuals who consumed healthy foods (good food) while persons who consumed unhealthy foods received unfavorable ratings.
The ratings were attributed to the fact that healthy food consumers were healthier, active, and slender and physically fit compared to persons that ate unhealthy foods. The same trend was observed in other studies regarding diet and physical activity (Kelder et al.; Auchincloss; Lowry et al.). Besides, individuals who consumed healthy foods were viewed to be more analytical, methodical, practical, quiet, likable and attractive (Stein and Nemeroff) while the opposite was true for those who consumed bad foods. From the respondent's ratings, it was deduced that persons who consumed healthy foods would be less likely to cause conflict in the society. Because their physique was in line with social and cultural expectations. Nonetheless, consumers of unhealthy foods were more likely to cause conflict because their actions and outward appearance seemed to be incongruent with social and cultural expectations.
After considering the role of food culture and its bearing towards personal attitude and social behavior which is often the starting point of conflict; the role of food and conflict resolution was elaborated in detail. In everyday life encounters, it is argued that consuming similar foods while on social or work engagement enhances trust in the person (Woolley and Fishbach). For instance, ordering the same food as the sales representative during a meeting could potentially improve trust with the client and belief in the information provided by the sales persons (Woolley and Fishbach). If such theories were proven right, then food consumption could be a tool for social and business interactions.
Woolley and Fishbach sought to investigate whether the above assertions and postulations were valid by analyzing the effects of incidental eating, cooperation and trust among strangers (Woolley and Fishbach). The study noted that incidental eating nurtured trust. Besides, one of the most vivid illustrations of how food consumption is used to enhance nonprofit management and resolve conflict is the ordinance of the Holy Communion in the Christian world (Woolley and Fishbach). The ordinance brings together individuals regardless of their social, cultural, or political affiliations in commemorating the last supper. Therefore, it could be argued that food consumption helps in building bridges and providing a uniting purpose across the cultural and racial divide that is often the source of conflict. On the other hand, Judaism and Islam are united in outlawing the consumption of pork which is regarded as a sinful practice (Woolley and Fishbach).
Hamlin and Wynn noted that social connection (a necessary component in conflict resolution) and attraction are enhanced when individuals have similar food preferences. A case in points, infants are more predisposed to adopt similar food choices to puppets that are prosocial (Hamlin and Wynn). The trends tend to become more pronounced as the child transitions to adolescence, and adulthood. Researchers have noted that Asian-Americans tend to consume American cuisines more so that they can feel that they belong to American culture (Guendelman, Cheryan, and Monin).
According to (Woolley and Fishbach) food can be used as a tool for enhancing trust, cohesion, and cooperation among parties. This is because it was noted that the consumption of similar foods increased the feeling of liking and closeness. The above statement is particularly the case for strangers because they cannot refer to the previous behavior of the other party as a basis for building trust. According to psychological theories, the first encounters and impressions help in either building or eroding trust. In such incidences, individuals look for clues that may help to establish the level of trust to bestow on another party. Therefore, since the previous behavior does not suffice, then the feelings of interconnectedness are stimulated when people consume similar foods, such feelings are instrumental in influencing the level of trust that one bestows on a stranger. Woolley and Fishbach also argue that the association between food and trust cannot be regarded as conscious nor normative. This is because it is initially hard for an individual to believe that he or she can trust a person based on similar food preferences until after the person has made the actual encounter. Moreover, the researchers argue that if much emphasis was placed on food cultures and food encounters, it could provide an avenue through which trust could be built among different groups. This would, in turn, result in better chances for conflict resolution. Lack of trust fuels conflict.
In yet another dimension, different cuisines could serve as a social lubricant that has the potential to enhance social relationships and thus prevent or solve conflict whether it is on a dinner date or ordinary lunch with colleagues or a wider cultural context. Additionally, marketers and sales personnel could also use food consumption to enhance trust and build social interactions. In this case, trust refers to the ability to invest one’s self or one’s resources in another person. Sales and marketing scenarios present some of the for-profit situations where trust can be used to enhance social interactions. Workplace, social and religious interactions are some of the not for profit scenarios where the food culture could be utilized to build trust and resolve the conflict.
The above assertion was proven a study undertaken by Woolley et al. The researcher noted that persons who had a relationship based on trust were able to cooperate more. This was also proven by (Yamagishi and Cook). Cooperation and eating of similar foods helped parties to be in a better position to resolve conflict compared to individuals consuming different foods (Woolley and Fishbach). The researchers also noted that when a marketer and a potential customer consumer similar foods, they were more inclined to have a stronger relationship that would automatically build trust.
The role of food in relation to conflict and conflict resolution was also explored in the context of humanitarian aid and not for profit organizations (Nunn and Qian). After reviewing some articles, it was deduced that the provision of relief food is one of the approaches that has been used by international organizations in reducing hunger and conflict mediated hunger. Nonetheless, the usefulness of constant provision of humanitarian food has been brought into question after it was realized that the distribution of food by not for profit organizations and international government agencies has not helped in reducing conflict (FAO). In fact, it has been postulated that the provision of relief food has contributed to the continued conflict in regions affected by hunger (Nunn and Qian). Nonetheless, there have been challenges in establishing a causal link between not for profit institution based food distribution, international government food relief, and conflict.
A study by FAO noted that lack of food was one of the primary sources of conflict among pastoralist communities (Nori, Switzer, and Crawford). However, the initiatives being undertaken by the not for profit organizations had helped in establishing pastoralist project that helped local cultures to have pastoralists markets that would enhance food security (Nori, Switzer, and Crawford). Besides, most organizations have urged western donors to encourage multiculturalism in place of developmentalism as their primary approach to food security (Duffield). Besides, nongovernmental organizations have been instrumental in advancing the policy of food sovereignty that seeks to eliminate hunger by initiating new approaches in agriculture and food systems governance (Windfuhr and Jonsén).
Methodology
The present study was limited to the consumption of different foods and its influence as a tool for conflict resolution and nonprofit management. The study adopted a secondary research approach since no primary research was undertaken. The study sought to establish whether consuming foods from different cultures would help in modifying views, attitudes, and level of appreciation towards certain cultures. Irrefutable evidence was provided indicating that consuming similar foods enhances trust, cooperation and the ability to resolve the conflict. The study relied on peer-reviewed scholarly journals and books as the primary source of information. Both qualitative and quantitative data was used to address the research question highlighted at the start of the study. Besides, the work of nonprofit organizations striving to build bridges across different cultures was taken into consideration, and the efficiency of such initiatives was discussed.
Discussion
In the extrapolation of the consumption of foods and their role in conflict resolution, there is need to highlight the fact that eating and feeding have different meanings. A case in point, infants, the elderly in special care, and animals consume food through a process that could be regarded as feeding instead of eating. This is because this group consumes what is made available to them. Therefore, what they eat may not necessarily reflect their attitudes or beliefs. At most, their foods may only reflect the society’s expectations on them. On the other hand, able humans eat rather than feed. Besides, feeding is different from feeding because to eat one has to cultivate, hunt, gather the food (through purchase or other means), and finally cook the food.
As it can be noted, the process of preparing and consuming the food follows different procedures and rules based on the cultural and religious setting that a person finds him or herself in. Cases in point, humans use different utensils to prepare and consumer foods in line with the code of etiquette that governs a particular culture. For instance, the French use a fork, spoon, and knife when eating while the English and Africans in the commonwealth are more liberal in their eating habits in that they do not have to use a fork, spoon, and knife. This leads to what was referred to as food culture (Kittler, Sucher, and Nelms). Various races and traditions have not automatically accepted different food cultures.
The adoption of America cuisines in Europe was at first met with resistance in Italy where the local consumer movement felt that the adoption of American cuisines endangered their indigenous foods. This is one of the isolated cases where the introduction of new cuisines resulted in conflict. The initiative was advanced by the Slow Food Movement with the aim preserving endangered foods, which constituted an integral part of European identity (Leitch). Such conflicts brought by the introduction of new foods were a microcosm of the larger opposition to neo-liberal modes.
The revolt by the Movement (Pietrykowski) was triggered by the establishment of an American fast food outlet in Rome. Some of the important arguments advanced by the movement included that American cuisines were introducing a fast life in Italy where people enjoyed the slowness of their food culture. Given the opposition to American first foods and the ability of the movement to gain such widespread public acceptance, one of the questions that come up is what was the underlying factor for the growth of European food politics even among the ordinary masses?(Leitch) To answer this question, the researcher reviewed diverse literature sources, which indicated that food has always served as a political symbol especially in times of momentous social and economic changes. The political establishment has overtime used food to resolve conflict or mishandled the situation resulting in a precipitated conflict.
A case in point Marie Antoinette received public displeasure after she suggested to the French population that they could eat cakes due to the short supply of bread in Paris. In the early days of industrial capitalism, attempts by the political establishment to increase bread tax resulted in nationwide protests in Italy against the throne (Leitch). The same was witnessed in England before the industrial revolution when peasants revolted against the increase in the basic prices of food items. In light of the revolutions and social uprisings caused by lack of food, it can be deduced that all protests revolving around food are fueled by demands for a moral economy and social justice rather than mere food scarcity or hunger (Orlove). Besides, before America’s independence from Britain, the consumption of tea became a radical symbol that united those who were colonized regardless of their class or place of origin (Greden). The use of tea provided an avenue through which the colonists organized riots, boycotts and ultimately the revolution against British rule. Such cases illustrate the extent to which food can be used to resolve greater conflict and advance social (not for profit) causes (Bentley).
Limitation
One of the main constraints of the research was that the study solely relied on secondary sources of data. Therefore, it was not possible to determine the accuracy of the information presented in the peer-reviewed articles and books. Additionally, the research question was broad, and it did not provide specifics of the cultural setting and type of conflicts that were to be analyzed through the consumption of the different cuisines. Additionally, the studies relied upon were conducted over different timeframes and in different cultural settings. Therefore, it was not possible to draw out patterns and similarities between the various studies. Another key limitation that was encountered by the researcher was that it was difficult to establish whether conflict resolution in the cases considered could be solely attributed to the sampling of diverse cuisines because there could be other predetermined factors. The last limitation was that there was insufficient information regarding the relationship between the consumption of different cuisines and nonprofit management.
Conclusion
The current study aimed to investigate the relationship between nonprofit management, conflict resolution, and consumption of foods from various cultures. Food science was identified as the domain that seeks to use food culture to discover new truths regarding a particular group of persons. The information revealed by food preferences includes personalities, assumptions, knowledge, passions, and individual beliefs. Food was considered as a voice that communicates to the outside world using nonverbal cues, telling the stories of individual preferences, helping to forge partnerships and bonds between different cultures and in conflict resolution and conflict management.
From the findings reported in the current study, it was deduced that the consumption of various cuisines had enabled humans to appreciate different cultures, and respect other people's views and attitudes. This has been particularly true in the case of Americans who had already immigrated to the US before 1950. The early immigrants mostly from European countries were able to appreciate Hispanic and Asian immigrants who later immigrated to the US between 1970 and 1986 through eating and embracing their diets thus reducing conflict. Another example was the Holy Communion ordinance that brings together Christians of different cultures, political views, and social class in partaking of the body and blood of Jesus Christ while Jews and Muslims may differ on religious dogma but they are united in prohibiting the eating of pork.
Additionally, it was noted that consuming similar cuisines nurtured trust, especially among strangers. Apart from the trust, consuming similar foods enhanced a spirit of cooperation between different parties. Cooperation and trust are regarded as essential qualities in conflict resolution. Besides, it was also noted that consumption of similar foods provided an avenue through which common people were able to unite for social causes. For instance, American colonists were brought together through the consumption of tea, resulting in an uprising that ended British colonization of US.
However, it was noted that the adoption of new foods from different cultures was initially met with some form of resistance in some countries such as Italy where it was believed that the consumption of American fast foods would lead to the disappearance of indigenous foods. The Slow Food Movement was especially instrumental in opposing the advancement of American fast foods that were deemed unhealthy in the Italian society.
Recommendations
The main recommendation is that an actual research should be conducted using primary sources of data rather than secondary sources. Such an approach would ensure that the researcher has control over the variables in the study and the accuracy and reproducibility of the data obtained from the surveys. Additionally, the scope of the research question and topic of study should also be narrowed down to specific cultures and aspects of conflict resolution.
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