Endocrine hormones

The involvement of stress and sex-related endogenous hormones in societal problems with reproductive health
The endocrine system is essential because it promotes growth and development as well as reproduction. Any disruption has unfavorable implications, and this paper's thesis—that endocrine disrupting substances are partially to blame for falling reproductive health in people, particularly in Western countries—is motivated by the delicate nature of this issue.
The imbalance of sex hormones in the brain occurs when females are exposed to androgen agonists. The resulting impacts include anxiety, mood disorders, and pathopsychological behaviors. These presentations are because of the alteration of the amygdala region of the brain such that AR gene expression which inhibits anxiety is down-regulated while increasing the expression of the serotoninergic GABAergic receptor1. Exposure also causes infertility in some females. Where children are born these effects are translated. Males are more prone to insulin resistance and obesity while females develop high androgen secretion that may lead to psychopathological disorders1. Exposure at a prenatal stage affects sexual orientation where such females tend to be sexually drawn to women2.
Exposure of male rodents to an estrogen receptor(ER) results to the diminishing of the masculine attributes. Methoxychlor causes lowered sperm count, reduced testosterone levels in the serum and minimized DNA content in the prostates and seminal vesicles of matured male rats. Their territorial marking behavior is more pronounced when compared with unexposed mice. Chlordecone inhibits spermatogenesis 3.Vinclozolin causes infertility in male rats. The male offsprings from such an exposure are not distinguishable from females as vinclozolin affected nipple development and inhibited masculinization of the genitals 3
Menopause in women occurs when menstrual flow ceases. Its onset is from 50 years and presents as hot flushes and sweating at night (vasomotor symptoms). Symptoms are caused by reduced estrogen levels and compromise the quality of life. Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT) is used to correct estrogen levels subsequently relieving the symptoms. Synthetic estrogen is supplemented.This may be given for topical vaginal application for local symptoms. This hormone restores bleeding during the withdrawal intervals. For those still with a uterus, progesterone is also administered to curb endometrial growth that may cause cancer. Estradiol is given for oral use or through transdermal injection. Annual review is conducted to analyze benefits and side effects and also adjust treatment appropriately. Premature menopause is treated with HRT until attainment of fifty years and at least three-year use is recommended for those commencing at over fifty years.4
Estrogen in the therapy has a lot of clinical benefits. Results from studies indicate that it reduces atherosclerosis and low-density cholesterol. It elevates high-density cholesterol and improves coronary vasodilation. Platelet aggregation prevented and reduced fracturing is also observed in HRT use. HRT was also reduced cardiovascular event and related mortalities. HRT also does not increase the risk to stroke, common in old age as supported by the Schierbeck study in 1993 and follow up for the next sixteen years4. In women where menstruation occurs prematurely, osteoporosis is prevented through HRT. HRT also improves mood as it is neuroprotective, it preserves cognitive functioning and reduces the incidence of Alzheimer's disease4.
HRT has also negative effects. In some women, it predisposes them to cancer with the risk reverting to that of the population after withdrawal. Muscular cramps, bloating, headaches and tenderness are the most common symptoms. Tibolone causes recurrence of breast cancer in women who are ER+ 4.
Obesity is a condition of overweight and in children, it is highly associated with over-nutrition and lifestyle 5. Childhood obesity is linked to early puberty in girls and delayed in boys.There are several explanations given for this. Studies have shown that the onset of puberty is guided by weight. When the minimum weight is attained then secondary characteristics begin to manifest. Since obese girls reach this weight before the pubertal age, their puberty characteristics occur earlier. Leptin hormone has been indicated in this as it guides the CNS when energy storage is adequate for puberty development5.
Androgens are also high in obese children especially girls. This brings about early maturation as gonadotropin-releasing hormone that suppresses sex hormones is inhibited by the high androgen levels. Endocrine disruptors (estrogenic) also contribute to puberty at a premature age in girls. This is because ECD causes obesity in and also disrupts the endocrine system which is the primary guide for growth and development5.
Hypothalamo-Pituitary Gonadal Axis is the path where the gonads communicate with the hypothalamus and pituitary glands to stimulate development.The hypothalamus functions through the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) which stimulates the pituitary glands for different actions. During stress, glucocorticoids are released as a hormonal response. They suppress production of GnRH in a path where the hippocampus inhibits the functioning of the hypothalamus. This downregulates the HPG axis reducing sexual excitement and repressing the working of the pituitary glands. It also starts the stress response6.
Intersex arises when one's gender cannot directly be identified as male or female. This leads to identity crisis and the society tends to discriminate against people with these disorders. As they have higher testosterone levels, intersex women athletes have a competitive advantage as they can maintain muscles and are highly energetic. However, this should not be a reason for discrimination of being locked out of sports. The athletes are allowed to identify with the gender they feel most comfortable with7.























References
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2. Breedlove SM. Minireview: Organizational hypothesis: Instances of the fingerpost. Endocrinology. 2010;151(9):4116-4122. doi:10.1210/en.2010-0041.
3. National Research Council(US) Committe on Hormonally Active Agents in the Environment. Effects on Reproduction and Development. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press; 1999. doi:10.17226/6029.
4. Bakour SH, Williamson J. Latest evidence on using hormone replacement therapy in the menopause. Obstet Gynaecol. 2015;17(1):20-28. doi:10.1111/tog.12155.
5. Solorzano CMB, Mccartney CR. Obesity and the pubertal transition in girls and boys. Reproduction. 2010;140(3):399-410. doi:10.1530/REP-10-0119.
6. Whirledge S, Cidlowski JA. Glucocorticoids, Stress, and Fertility. Minerva Endocrinol. 2010;35(2):1-21. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3547681/pdf/nihms403039.pdf. Accessed June 7, 2017.
7. Women's Sports Foundation. THE FOUNDATION POSITION PARTICIPATION OF INTERSEX ATHLETES IN WOMEN'S SPORTS. Women's Sport Found.:1-5. https://www.womenssportsfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/participation-of-intersex-athletes-in-womens-sports.pdf. Accessed June 7, 2017.