This article claims that, while not all issues within a company are influenced by the gender makeup of the top management, some are. The article examines research on German businesses with an emphasis on how the makeup of the top managers affects employees' performance. According to the study results presented in this article, there is a negative correlation between employee outcomes and the proportion of female employees in senior management. These outcomes include total pay per worker, investments and company’s trading volume among others. Additionally, the article indicates that establishments that have a high percentage of female workers in the senior management is likely to put in place measures focused on improving women’s working conditions. This would include the provision of childcare facilities within the establishment and mentoring of female staff among others. According to this article, however, establishments where wages are low, the working environment is female friendly, and there is less investment, these establishments are likely to be led by a woman.
Pfeifer, C. (2013). THE GENDER COMPOSITION OF ESTABLISHMENTS’ WORKFORCES AND GENDER GAPS IN WAGES AND LEADERSHIP POSITIONS*, 13. Retrieved from http://library.pcw.gov.ph/sites/default/files/gender%20composition%20of%20establishments.pdf
This article focuses on shedding some light on the wage gaps that based on gender composition in leadership. According to this article, the nature of gender composition in the leadership of any establishments largely determines the wages offered to workers in that particular establishments. The findings presented in this article are generated from a prior research which suggests that establishments whose leadership is dominated by male or female leaders are synonymous with a high wage gap. In other words, in establishments where leadership is dominated by males, male workers are more likely to get better wages than women in the same establishment and vice versa. Additionally, this article further asserts that wage gap by gender for employees in a leadership position is small in male-dominated establishments as compared to female-dominated establishments. Furthermore, the gender is large in female-dominated establishments and small in these establishments.
Morikawa, Y. (2015). THE OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES FOR FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION IN MOROCCO, 52. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/female-labor-force-participation.pdf
According to Morikawa, (2015), women in the North Africa and Middle East comprise about 49% of the population, yet only about 28% of them are in the labor force. Morocco is a classic example in this regard in that while the population in Morocco is about 50% female, only 26% of them are accounted for in the labor force. In 1999 to 2010, the rate of female participation in labor dropped from 30% to 26%. In other words, the number of women in formal employment dropped in the course of this period. Morikawa, (2015), purports that the rate of female participation in the North Africa and Middle East is the lowest in the world. This is a worrying trend especially considering that there are assumptions that the economies of countries in these regions could increase if more women were to be engaged in the labor force. In fact, it is estimated that if the female labor force is to be increased, household earnings will increase by 25% allowing most households in these regions achieve the middle-class status.
Elder, S., & Smith, A. (2010). Women in labor markets: Measuring progress and identifying challenges. International Labor Office. www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/---.../wcms_123835.pdf
This article documents the discussions that transpired during the fourth world conference on gender equality and women empowerment in workplaces. Various gender-related issues in workplaces have been discussed in the previous forum documented in this article focused on equality for women in the world of work and the core values of the international labor office (ILO). Several objectives are delved on in this article in the same regard. One of the objectives is the promotion of women’s economic rights, which revolves around the favorable working environment and access to employment. Additionally, the article touches on facilitating equal access to market trade and employment for women as for men. This is to ensure that more women get a chance to get involved in the world of work. Additionally, the article discusses the strengthening of women’s economic capacity and improving their commercial network. These objectives among others are focused on mitigating the challenges faced by women in the labor market.
International Labor Organization (ILO). (2016). Women at work: trends 2016. ILO, Geneva, Switzerland. Retrieved from www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---.../wcms_457317.pdf
Women have for the longest time been marginalized when it comes to working, and since the fourth world conference on women held in Beijing, only minimal achievements have been realized. According to this article, large equality gaps in workplaces are still in place, but it is anticipated that these gaps will be closed through the implementation of the 2030 sustainable development agenda which was adopted by the UN in 2015. Inequality between men and women is still rife even in global labor markets with regard to outcomes and treatment in the workplace. In the last couple of years, women have achieved a milestone in as far as education is concerned, but this has not extended to the workplace as well. In many countries across the globe, women are more like to remain unemployed in comparison to men, and the women that are fortunate enough to get into the labor system have to contend with lower jobs. Hopefully, the 2030 agenda will resolve this and foster equality between men and women.
Klasen, S., & Pieters, J. (2015). What explains the stagnation of female labor force participation in urban India? The World Bank Economic Review, 29(3), 449-478. Retrieved from: https://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/abs/10.1093/wber/lhv003
This article documents an empirical study conducted to gain an understanding of why female participation in India has stagnated. The stagnation of women participation was analyzed from 1987 to 2009. In the course of this period, India realizes increased economic growth, increased wages, and improved education yet women participation in labor stagnated at 18%. The research was conducted through micro surveys, which revealed that the effects of demand and supply are among the reasons for this stagnation. Factors relating to supply included increased household incomes, improvement of the husband's education and stigmatization of educated women undertaking lower jobs. Factors relating to demand included a reduction in sectors appropriate for female labor force which was in contrast to the high supply of educated women. This saw many women withdraw from the labor force. This is case study precisely shows the extent of gender inequality in the labor sector. Have more educated women but only a few of them absorbed in workplaces is a worrying trend.
Aid, A. (2015). Close the gap! The cost of inequality in women’s work. Retrieved from https://www.actionaid.org.uk/sites/default/files/publications/womens_rights_on-line_version_2.1.pdf
In the spirit of equality, ActionAid undertook research into women involvement in the job market and the potential benefits they could reap if the inequality gap is to be closed. According to this article, millions of women across the globe are still chained to their traditional roles of fetching firewood, raising the children and cooking for the family among others. What most countries have not realized is that women’s labor is vital for sustainable development. Hence, women should not be confined to doing household jobs alone but should be encouraged and enabled to work in the formal labor market as well. The research by ActionAid revealed that the value of change for women could change by an estimated $9 trillion if they were to be given equal opportunities as men. This estimate price tag gives a clearer picture of the extent of the inequality gap and the vast untapped potential in women.
Aaronson, S., Cajner, T., Fallick, B., Galbis-Reig, F., Smith, C., & Wascher, W. (2014). Labor force participation: recent developments and prospects. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 2014(2), 197-275. Retrieved from: https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Fall2014BPEA_Aaronson_et_al.pdf.
Based on article there has been decline in participation of labor force from 66% to 63% since 2007. This decline is regardless of the gender. The cause of this decline has been a subject of discussion among policymakers each of them accruing the decline to different factors. Some argue that the decline is as a result of weak labor demand while others argue that the decline is. As a result aging of the population. Overall, the decline in labor participation is classified into broad categories namely cyclical and structural factors. Based on independent assessment Aaronson et al., (2014) argue that the decline is large as a result of structural factors such as the aging of the population. Nonetheless, the decline, to some extent can be attributed to the slack in the labor market such as low wages and unfavorable working conditions. However, the continued decline may not be attributed to the labor market considering the continued improvements thereof.
Fortin, N. M. (2015). Gender role attitudes and women's labor market participation: opting-out, AIDS, and the persistent appeal of housewifery. Annals of Economics and Statistics/Annales d'Économie et de Statistique, (117/118), 379-401. Retrieved from http://faculty.arts.ubc.ca/nfortin/Fortin_Gender.pdf
According to Fortin, (2015), female labor force participation has leveled since 1990 than the previous years. Considering improvement in key economic variables and education, this is rather odd. This article analyses the potential impact that changing attitudes towards gender roles would have on participation of female labor specifically in the US. To ensure the reliability of the findings, the research incorporates life cycle and non-linear time period in addition to a good number of other variables. The research conducted to arrive at the findings documented in this paper harness prong instrumental variable strategy appropriate for attitude in general social surveys and the AIDS scare approach. The progression of attitudes on gender roles stalled in the 1990s when AIDS was at its height. This change is said to contribute to about one-third of the leveling in female labor participation.
Popescu, G. H. (2016). Gender, Work, and Wages: Patterns of Female Participation in the Labor Market. Journal of Self-Governance and Management Economics, 4(1), 128-134.
The main purpose of this study was to examine the inequalities in the wages between men and women. The study was conducted as a result of the frequency by which American workers shifted jobs in the course of their careers. The article highlighted a study conducted 1979 to 2002 through the use of a multilevel modelling. The article further highlights the different ways by which mobility influences the economic trajectory of employee job growth. The findings noted that there exists differences in the men and women labor force attachment and the family circumstances. Generally, employees who showed less labor force attachment showed lesser benefit from their shifting of employers. Similarly, married women and those with children also exhibited a less-favorable mobility-wage outcome. The limitation of this study is that it did not take into consideration the literacy levels and the effects of their social and cultural environments of participants but focused only on the gender aspects. However, this article provides important insight concerning the female challenges in labor movements.
References
Aaronson, S., Cajner, T., Fallick, B., Galbis-Reig, F., Smith, C., & Wascher, W. (2014). Labor force participation: recent developments and prospects. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 2014(2), 197-275.
Aid, A. (2015). Close the gap! The cost of inequality in women’s work.
Elder, S., & Smith, A. (2010). Women in labor markets: Measuring progress and identifying challenges. International Labor Office
Fortin, N. M. (2015). Gender role attitudes and women's labor market participation: opting-out, AIDS, and the persistent appeal of housewifery. Annals of Economics and Statistics/Annales d'Économie et de Statistique, (117/118), 379-401.
Gagliarducci, S., & Paserman, D. (2014). The Effect of Female Leadership on Establishment and Employee Outcomes: Evidence from Linked Employer-Employee Data, 36.
International Labor Organization (ILO). (2016). Women at work: trends 2016. ILO, Geneva, Switzerland
Klasen, S., & Pieters, J. (2015). What explains the stagnation of female labor force participation in urban India? The World Bank Economic Review, 29(3), 449-478
Morikawa, Y. (2015). THE OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES FOR FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION IN MOROCCO, 52.
Pfeifer, C. (2013). THE GENDER COMPOSITION OF ESTABLISHMENTS’ WORKFORCES AND GENDER GAPS IN WAGES AND LEADERSHIP POSITIONS*, 13.
Popescu, G. H. (2016). Gender, Work, and Wages: Patterns of Female Participation in the Labor Market. Journal of Self-Governance and Management Economics, 4(1), 128-134.
