There exists a type of drug known as opioids, which can be found in some pain relievers that one can acquire legally, which include oxycodone, morphine, and codeine among many others. Heroin, an illegal substance, is also defined as an opioid. This drug can be derived from the opium plant or it can be created synthetically. The opioids that are prescribed are often given to patients with the aim of reducing pain. Nevertheless, this drug is now being abused by many people, which often leads to dependence, addiction, or death owing to an overdose. If an individual were to start abusing this medication, he or she can soon transition into using heroin. Researchers have also focused on finding out how the dependence on this drug affects the brain systems whereby studies on heroin addicts have revealed changes in functional properties and grey and white matter (Upadhyay et al., 2010). Through a careful assessment of existing research, the discovery of the implications that opioid use has on the brain can be realized.
The Effects of Opioid Use on the Brain
Upadhyay et al. (2010) were preoccupied with filling fill the knowledge gap concerning the effect on the brain owing to using prescription opioid over a long term and dependence since people often based their perceptions on the heroin and methadone studies that had been conducted before. The authors thereby endeavored to establish if there were any morphology and functional connectivity alterations in the prescription opioid users’ brains. Only 10 people, both adult males and females, were used in this study, and another 10 healthy individuals were recruited to serve as the control participants (Upadhyay et al., 2010). Several imaging procedures were done on all the subjects and controls revealing several aspects. The cohort of opioid-dependent persons was found to have significant volumetric alterations in the amygdala when compared to the control grouping (Upadhyay et al., 2010). There were also some abnormalities in the opioid-dependent participants’ white matter tract in comparison with the healthy ones whereby the former had an extremely lower anisotropy in the axonal pathways and the amygdala’s efferent and afferent pathways (Upadhyay et al., 2010). Additionally, there were notable differences among the two cohorts relative to their functional connectivity whereby it was less in the brain networks of opioid-dependent persons (Upadhyay et al., 2010). However, the study did not manage to control some factors such as genetics that may have influenced the implications of using opioids on the morphology and connectivity of the brain.
Younger et al., (2011) conducted a longitudinal study of the consequences of prescription opioids on the human brain. Its aims were to fill the knowledge gaps through ascertaining that opioid administration was responsible for brain abnormalities in addition to recognizing where opioids were legitimately prescribed and taken as instructed (Younger et al., 2011). An MRI pilot study proved beneficial in identifying if there were any alterations in the morphology of the human brain after daily doses of opioid were taken for a short time, and the imaging was conducted on 10 persons that had chronic pain in their lower backs that included both adult males and females (Younger et al., 2011). A comparison of the scans before and after a month of using morphine every day was done. A similar procedure was done on 9 persons with the same condition though being recipients of a placebo substance (Younger et al., 2011). By comparing the data between the morphine cohort and the placebo one, several aspects were realized. The records showed that even after one month, the daily use of morphine was the reason for regional neuro-plastic alterations on the brain (Younger et al., 2011). During this period, a look at the right amygdala revealed that it had less grey matter, and this morphological alteration illustrated the way opioid administration brought about fast changes in reward-learning circuits. There was also observable volumetric alteration in the inferior pons and hypothalamus. This implications on the latter generated significant interest since opioids have an inhibiting effect on its ability to create hypocretin, which is instrumental in facilitating cognitive arousal and attention (Younger et al., 2011). Moreover, it was noted that for these subjects, one could make a speedy return to the previous brain volume before opioid was introduced to the body by simply stopping its use (Younger et al., 2011).
Race has a significant influence on an individual experiencing these effects, which are likely to be experienced by whites owing to the greater access to these substances. A study on the Medicaid population in North Carolina that had chronic noncancer pain acknowledged some racial disparities regarding opioid prescription (Ringwalt, Roberts, Gugelmann, " Skinner, 2015). The chances of black patients being recommended to take opioid medication were nine percent lower than for white patients (Ringwalt et al., 2015). This difference can be explained by the disparities that are present when doctors are dealing with whites and minority patients. African Americans tend to be at a higher probability of being undertreated for pain owing to their testimonies being underestimated by their healthcare providers (Ringwalt et al., 2015). This bias has, therefore, led to more whites being given opioids to ease their pain, which puts this populace at a higher chance of developing dependence and experiencing the adverse consequences identified in the studies mentioned above.
Furthermore, sex significantly contributes to eventually falling victim to the adverse effects of opioid use. A desk research of the PubMed database for studies between 2000 and 2016 reveals the differences between men and women relative to pain encounters and opioid use (Koons, Greenberg, Cannon, " Beauchamp, 2018). Females are likely to declare that they are experiencing more severe pain levels, more regular incidents of pain, more painful body parts, and pain that spans longer periods in comparison to males (Koons et al., 2018). Similarly, there are higher chances of men declining to report pain than women (Koons et al., 2018). Studies have also shown that opioid abuse was higher among women, which has probably been brought about by the increased likelihood among females in reporting pain that, in turn, leads to opioid prescription (Koons et al., 2018).
Summary
In conclusion, a comprehensive analysis of the existing research has helped in illustrating the effect that abusing opioids has on the human brain. two studies have looked into the consequences of opioid use. The first study showed that opioid-dependent individuals had substantial volumetric alterations in the amygdala, several abnormalities in their white matter tract, and a lower functional connectivity in comparison with healthy persons. The second study showed that in one just a month, opioid users had had less grey matter in addition to significant volumetric alteration in the inferior pons and hypothalamus. Additionally, several demographic factors have been identified, which illustrate the different rates of suffering the effects of opioid abuse. Race was a contributor since whites were more likely to get opioid prescriptions when compared to blacks. Sex is the other influential aspect whereby women are more likely to report pain besides overstating its severity thereby having higher chances of being instructed to take opioids.
Discussion
This topic was significant since many nations are currently facing a disaster owing to opioid dependence and addiction. This occurrence has resulted in a significant number of people across the globe experiencing adverse effects on their brains while their initial intentions were innocent as they sought a relief for pain. Additionally, several others have died as a result of overdoses. These consequences mean that the society loses active members that would have proven beneficial in bettering it. As a societal member, this topic is of consequence to me since I am likely to experience a friend or family member whose life is negatively affected or cut short owing to using opioids. Moreover, after my studies, I am likely to encounter several opioid dependents and addicts in the psychology field. Consequently, this topic is consistent with the course as it deals with how the human brain can be affected by people’s choices. The information that has been discovered will also prove beneficial in numerous aspects of my life. Firstly, if I encounter any friend or family member that is seeking pain relievers, I can manage to discourage the use of opioids using substantiated reasons. Secondly, this information will help me become a better professional in dealing with people that seek my services.
References
Koons, A. L., Greenberg, M. R., Cannon, R. D., " Beauchamp, G. A. (2018). Women and the Experience of Pain and Opioid Use Disorder: A Literature-based Commentary. Clinical therapeutics.
Ringwalt, C., Roberts, A. W., Gugelmann, H., " Skinner, A. C. (2015). Racial disparities across provider specialties in opioid prescriptions dispensed to medicaid beneficiaries with chronic noncancer pain. Pain Medicine, 16(4), 633-640.
Upadhyay, J., Maleki, N., Potter, J., Elman, I., Rudrauf, D., Knudsen, J., ... " Anderson, J. (2010). Alterations in brain structure and functional connectivity in prescription opioid-dependent patients. Brain, 133(7), 2098-2114.
Younger, J. W., Chu, L. F., D’arcy, N. T., Trott, K. E., Jastrzab, L. E., " Mackey, S. C. (2011). Prescription opioid analgesics rapidly change the human brain. PAIN®, 152(8), 1803-1810.
