Every human being's worth is determined by his or her physical or mental appearance. Researchers in the medical and social sciences have devised metrics to assess a person's normalcy over time. A person is classified as normal or impaired based on these metrics. Yet, the measures supplied do not provide a precise definition of disability. These measures are defined by medical, functional, or ecological criteria. Once made, the diagnosis specifies how an individual interacts with power, knowledge, and social relationships. People who do not satisfy the aforementioned characteristics are frequently seen as abnormal and so offered extremely little respect (Maart et al., 2007). As argued by most researchers, the nature and form of treatment given to the 'less normal' persons in the society have, over the years, been shaped by the cultural and social settings within which they reside. These persons are often viewed as the weaker link in the society, and several barriers are placed between them and the normal class. They are accorded minimal attention simply because they are less endowed, physically and mentally. They are socially, geographically, and culturally segregated from the larger population by landscapes put in place by the normal race. By referring to various feminist, Capitalist and Marxist theories, Longhurst, R. & Kitchin, R define disability to enable readers to understand how cultural landscapes put in place to enhance people's lives have led to the social and physical exclusion of the disabled in the society.
The definitions given to the human body and disability have impacted greatly on the manner in which women and other minority groups are treated globally. Social settings have provided criteria upon which a given body type can be regarded as normal. Human body is given specific descriptions based on the specific needs required by each to function normally. Often, people are made to believe in the fallacies of being in perfect physical and emotional health. Only particular body types are viewed to be perfect for specific types of jobs. For instance, slimming adverts seeking to help women get 'perfect body shapes' are aired on various TV stations advocating the right body type and size for all women. Those unable to meet these standards are regarded as less beautiful than their counterparts with the 'hour glass shapes'. This has led most women and disabled people to strive to achieve the 'perfect body fit' required to survive better in the competitive society. With advancement in time and technology, environmental planners and designers have resorted to putting in place more accommodating structures to eliminate the social and cultural barriers originally in place. The structures have however achieved minimal success as most landscape designs tend to promote segregation of women and people with disabilities.
Longhurst, R. (Dis) embodied geographies
This article discusses the different theories used to describe the human body. By reviewing a number of feminist, cultural, social and geographical theories, the article highlights different views adopted by the dualism principles such as mind/body, sex/gender, and essentialism/constructionism. According to the article, there are many different theories to understanding the human body. The psychoanalytic theory developed by Sigmund feud has been utilized by several feminist theorists to distinguish between the male and female bodies (Long Hurst, 1997). The male body, which is defined mainly by the phallus, is deemed to be more superior to the female body which lacks this feature. The female body, on the other hand, is deemed to be castrated and lacking the necessary feature required allowing for its representation in various cultures. Long Hurst equally states that the body can also be considered a site for cultural consumption. Values, morals as well as social laws can be etched or inscribed into every person's body to fit the owner's specific needs.
Based on the differences in composition and makeup of the male and the female body, feminists' theorists highlighted by long Hurst argue that there are certain inscriptions that can only be made on the male body. As outlined by Long Hurst, the woman's body, together with her voice, language and character, cannot be used to undertake various tasks easily accomplished by their counterparts. Masculinity is likened to reasoning while Feminism is likened to irrationality (Long Hurst, 1997). Long Hurst argues that the dualism concepts of mind/body, masculinity/femininity as well as rational/irrational have failed to provide all interested parties (geographers) with an accurate understanding of how our bodies relate to different environments. Although man models the environment in which they find themselves, the environments, in turn, influence the manner in which they interact with it. In a bid to better understand embodiment and its relationship with different spaces, geographers have resorted to sexualizing the body while still embracing works by previous researchers.
Kitchin, R. 'Out of Place', 'Knowing One's Place'
According to the article, disabled people are often excluded from mainstream society. Reasons for such exclusions vary greatly from place to place depending on the social and cultural setting within which they reside. Disabled people are associated with poor housing, segregated schools, and discrimination in the workplaces (Kitchin, 1998). This segregation can be explained using a number of theories including capitalist, Psychoanalysis and Marxist approaches. The Marxists argue that the disabled are less physically endowed and hence less productive. They are as a result a liability to the society and should in effect receive minimal economic benefits. Further the geographical setting and design of living, social and work spaces tends to sideline this group of people. These settings are rarely natural but are artificially created by human beings.
Psychoanalysis approach, which refers to the fear or repulsion of people with disabilities, can also be used to explain the process of exclusion as well as reasons for discrimination. Naturally, the mind is tuned to categorize events into either good or bad. Using this classification, those with disabilities are grouped as 'bad' as they possess characteristics that are less beneficial (Kitchin, 1998). According to Robin, space plays an important role in the process of exclusion. Space is regarded as an active component of social relations socially constructed by its inhabitants. It is important to note that exclusions arise mainly as a result of the artificial social and physical barriers put in place by human beings. Spaces can be organized to exclude the disabled from participating in various social events in two major ways. First, geographical spaces can be organized in a manner that tends to keep the disabled 'in their place'; alternatively, the layouts of various spaces can be arranged in a manner that tends to convey to the disabled that certain spaces are 'not their places'. With these settings, disabled continuously feel out of place. Urban settings, as well as public transport, are examples of artificially made spaces that explicitly exclude the disabled from participating in certain economic and social activities.
Because disability is a multi-dimensional concept with both subjective and objective characteristics, it is one of the most complex terms to define. Objectively, it can be defined as an illness or impairment that is fixed in a person's body or mind. Subjectively, it can be defined as a social construct following a person's exclusion by the majority in the society (Maart et al., 2007). Over the years, researchers have resorted to defining disability from three main perspectives covering impairment, ecological and the functional limitation perspective. While the Impairment perspective relates solely to health deficiencies associated with the body, the functional limitation perspective makes an attempt to expand the health perspective to include non-medical factors which are both social and physical. Regardless of the form of definition adopted, social as well as physical exclusion is experienced by all.
While there are several people with disabilities in the community, only a few are actually a part of it as most find themselves socially, culturally and politically isolated. In every society, the disabled live with real struggles of wanting to be seen, noticed or heard. A survey carried out by the Government's Department of Social Services highlights lack of social inclusion and inability to participate in community development as some of the major challenges facing people with disabilities. The disabled are issued with numerous restrictions on the nature of activities they can undertake as well as places they can go. The spaces within which the disabled reside also impact greatly on the quality of their lives. According to a study carried out by Maart et al. (2007) on 'Environmental barriers experienced by urban and rural disabled people', the greatest challenges faced by disabled persons are facilitated by environmental factors. The study shows that disabled persons in urban settings are more likely to experience more barriers using products and technology as well as physical and artificially constructed environments. Their counterparts in the rural settings, however, experience more attitudinal barriers. As opposed to the urban setups, rural landscapes are characterized by fewer man-made structures hence the minimal reports on physical challenges. It is vital to note that most physical barriers facilitating seclusion of people with disabilities are facilitated artificially by their fellow men. While this might not be for political reasons, every human being is engineered to act rationally by making choices that benefit them first. For most people, it does not matter whether other people's genuine interests are overlooked in the process.
Besides physical barriers, persons with disability also face systemic barriers in employment and other civic programs (Maart et al, 2007). Just by carrying the 'disability' tag, most disabled people are deemed to be weak and unable to fight for themselves. They are therefore denied the chance to participate in or benefit from federally sponsored services. Although most organizations have the 'employment equality rule' inscribed in their by-laws, many are yet to fully implement this rule. A survey carried out by the United States Department of Labor shows grueling statistics of the minimal rate at which disabled job applicants are absorbed into the job market. According to the study, approximately 4,062 &5,193 disabled people were absorbed into the job market in 2014 and 2015 respectively. This translates to 26% of the annual applications received from this category (United States Department of Labor, 2016). On the other hand, nearly 134,273 able-bodied beings (approximately 71% of annual job applicants in this category) were absorbed to this market in 2015. Besides employment inequality, organizations also lack the necessary infrastructure required to promote productivity of disabled employees at the workplaces. Employers are not well equipped to handle employees with various disabilities. Most workspaces are arranged in a manner that does not encourage people with disabilities to perform the essential tasks for which they are employed. The magnification of these barriers, coupled up with other forms of segregation in the workplace, tends to affect the efficiency and overall productivity of disabled employees. In effect, they are labeled inefficient and unproductive and hence less profitable.
Gender, as highlighted by Maart et al (2007) plays a vital role on various perspectives of disability. Women are generally inferior to men owing to their biological make up. Women with disabilities, therefore, experience more severe forms of segregation owing to the biological, psychological, social, political and cultural factors associated with being female. The completeness of a woman is pegged on her ability to undertake certain functions often dictated by her cultural traditions. From the functional perspective, a woman's body is modeled to bring forth and care for her offspring. Women who are unable to get babies as required by these traditions are labeled infertile and less womanly. On the contrary, physically disabled women who sire children are regarded as irresponsible and their children frequently pitied. Since the woman is also regarded to as the caregiver of the family, any dysfunction that affects her ability to fully take part in these activities impacts on the level of respect she is accorded by those in her surroundings.
Conclusion
Disability is a subjective yet objective concept. While it initially included just the medical aspects, it has currently been enlarged to include other non-medical factors relating to physical and social constraints. The term disability is used to denote a person with a certain lacking or inability to undertake a given function. Although women are persons with full ability to make rational decisions, their inability to undertake certain tasks results into their classification as disabled persons. Following this classification, they are formally excluded from taking part in certain programs. This exclusion is mainly a social construct perpetuated by persons seeking superiority and power to control the weaker link. Social exclusion does not function independently, but is often facilitated by other physical barriers including architectural plans put in place in various environments. Following technological advancements, a number of building and landscaping designs have taken effect. Although these are meant to improve the lifestyle of the larger population, persons living with disabilities are unable to enjoy such privileges. Urban environments including the infrastructures, facilities and services often impede the movement and efficiency of people with disabilities. It is important that disability is given an appropriate definition to avoid the ambiguity in classification of the 'disabled'. Further, the impact of various social spaces on the quality of life for the disabled should be investigated to encourage their inclusion and ability to participate in all social and economic programs.
References
Kitchin, R. (1998). 'Out of Place', 'Knowing One's Place': Space, Power and the Exclusion of Disabled People. Disability and Society, 13(3): 343-356.
Longhurst, R. (1997). (Dis) embodied Geographies. Progress in Human Geography, 21(4)
Maart, A. H. Eide, J. Jelsma, M. E. Loeb & M. Ka Toni (2007). Environmental barriers experienced by urban and rural disabled people in South Africa, Disability & Society. Accessed from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09687590701337678
United States Department of Labor. (2016). Employment Status of the Civilian Non-institutional Population by Disability Status and Age, 2014 and 2015 Annual Averages. Accessed from https://www.bls.gov/news.release/disabl.a.htm
