Opponent process theory of Solomon and Corbit states that when one emotion is experienced, the other emotion is suppressed. If a dog frightens a person, he/ she expresses the emotion of fear, whereas the emotion of relief is suppressed. However, if the fear-causing stimulus continues to be present, relief intensifies, and fear reduces. According to the opponent process theory, a typical emotional response follows a temporal pattern. All hedonic and pleasure-seeking behaviors follow a typical pattern. Solomon came up with two components in every reaction to an emotional situation. A-reaction is short-lived and intense. B-reaction is slower to build and starts to occur as A-stimulus disappears. B-reaction is hedonic contrast since it is inverse to A-reaction.
In a hedonic reversal, pleasure becomes a pain, and in turn, pain turns to pleasure. A stimulus that was initially causing a pleasant and unpleasant response does not disappear but instead causes opposite secondary sensation. The secondary reaction (B-reaction) becomes stronger as the initial response weakens. A repeated stimulus strengthens B-reaction. A good example is the case of addiction. Repeated administration of a drug makes the original dose to have less effect on the person. Therefore, the individual has to increase the amount of the drug he or she takes at a time. After repeated experiences, tolerance occurs, the body adjusts, and cravings become strong. As time goes on, abstaining from the drug intake becomes hard, and instead one has a craving and anxiety for the specific drug (Solomon " Corbit, 1973). Solomon and Corbit use A and B-reactions to explain the common pattern of sensory response. B-reaction begins shortly after the initiation of stimulus A. B-reaction dampen reaction A hence reducing its net impact. After a continued repetition of stimulus A, B-reaction intensifies and decays slowly. Neurotransmitters, biological receptors, and hormones act to moderate A-reaction. This process of regulation is a biological function that prevents environmental interference forming the systems of homeostasis.
During the first time alcohol intake, a person experiences a euphoric feeling, sense of less inhabitation and relaxation after taking the first few bottles or glasses of alcohol. The person may portray dilated pupils, eyes bulging and fears taking much alcohol. The person may walk around being very socially active and looking elated. The after-reaction lasts for a few hours after the first alcohol intake. As the person continues to engage in this behavior for a number of times, signs of affective habituation become clear. The fearful reaction is no longer there, and the individual drinks his or her beer freely. A-reaction weakens, and B-reaction intensifies. The individual has an intense craving for alcohol, and the stage is known as abstinence agony. The repeated take of alcohol results in the behavioral phenomenon of addiction. If the properties of affective response to the alcohol fade out to baseline within a short time, then a perpetual cycle of addiction will not arise.
Chaining is an instructional strategy used to teach behaviors by breaking them down into smaller sequential steps. “A response chain was defined as a sequence of behaviors that must occur in a specific order, with a primary reinforce following the completion of the last behavior in the chain” (Mazur, 2012). If an action is well performed using the correct sequence, then the person is rewarded at the end of the successful task. Teaching response chain involves forward and backward chaining strategies. However, to choose the best approach to use for behavior modification, some factors come into consideration.
Backward chaining teaches an individual a sequence of behavior starting with the last one to the first one. Here, the individual is encouraged to complete the last step independently, and upon mastering the last step then the other steps are introduced one after the other. This strategy is commonly used in individuals with low motivation to learn new skills. Therefore, the trainer introduces the last step so that the individual can quickly receive an effective reward for completing the level. With time, this individual learns to tolerate delays before being rewarded. This strategy applies to children showing resistance to instructions. In cases where the instruction session is very short, backward chaining is preferred so that the end result is reached quickly (Jerome, Frantino " Sturmey, 2007). An excellent example of backward chaining is teaching individuals how to type and increase their typing speed. The more the individuals continue to type the more he or she increases their typing speed. At first, the individual may tend to type while watching their finger but he or she is happy since there is progress and is managing to type. The more they continue typing; they learn to place their fingers on the keyboard hence improving their speed and accuracy. This technique is also used in people with developmental disabilities.
Forward chaining teaches an individual a sequence of behavior starting with the first step to the end. One step must be mastered before moving to the next. This method is used with individuals who understand the end product of learning the behavior. Also, people who are motivated to learn new skills display little resistance to sequential learning. Mazur (2012) goes on to give an example of a swimmer. A swimmer first learns the cues necessary for forward movement. Once they master this technique, the trainer goes on to introduce breaststroke cues. Forward chaining is used to teach normal routines among children such as putting on clothes and shoes, brushing their teeth and completion of work task. Children especially those with developmental disabilities require response chain tactics to learn behaviors. A teacher has to show them a task systematically, act the task out and keep on repeating. A reward is then administered for a task completed successfully.
References
Jerome, J., Frantino, E. P., " Sturmey, P. (2007). The effects of errorless learning and backward chaining on the acquisition of internet skills in adults with developmental disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 40(1), 185-189.
Mazur, J. E. (2015). Learning and Behavior. London: Psychology Press.
Solomon, R. L., " Corbit, J. D. (1973). An opponent-process theory of motivation: II. Cigarette addiction. Journal of abnormal psychology, 81(2), 158.
