For quite a long time, social class, particularly in ancient and medieval times, also determined children’s development. That meant that children who were ‘high-born’ or from noble families were likely to experience better physical, a cognitive, social, and emotional development than those from the low class. The social inequality was also evidence in the performing arts where only noble children could learn to play the flute, piano, ballet, theatre or classical music. The aspect led to the concept of the cultural capital where the family particularly parents had a lot of influence in the development of children (Tzanakis, 2011). Therefore, parents with dominant culture are likely to pass the same to children, hence facilitating their better development (Tzanakis, 2011). However, several studies have found out that social capital rather than cultural capital has a significant effect on children’s performance especially in the field of performing and creative arts (Coleman, 1994; Tzanakis, 2011). Therefore, culture has little effect on how children learn about fine arts and how they eventually contribute their development.
In this case, social capital focuses on the parent’s attitudes towards their children during the learning process (Coleman, 1994). Research shows that the parents who have a positive and encouraging attitude will make their children develop more in performing arts unlike those that were condescending (Coleman, 1997; Tzanakis, 2011). The literature review will provide evidence that parent’s attitude plays a greater role in children’s development than cultural capital advanced by Bourdieu & Passeron (1977).
Literature review
Role of performing arts in children’s development
Majority of schools are striving to promote the performing arts in their curriculum to enhance children’s development by improving their well-being (Smith et al., 2015). Governments are in the forefront in making it mandatory for schools to offer dance classes, theatre, music and creative writing (Hsiao, 2015). Parents are also being selecting the schools they choose to send their children. Many of them are looking for schools that actively promote and teach arts because it allows their children to freely express themselves (Smith et al., 2015). The ability to freely express oneself promotes child development by increasing sense of self –esteem, confidence and communication skills (Smith et al., 2015). Studies have proved that a child’s sense of self-worth has a significant impact on their learning and subsequent development (Smith et al., 2015). Furthermore, creative arts allow offer enrichment in learning by enabling children to be active participants rather than passive ones (Xu, 2017). For this reason, creative arts are used to promote positive development in kindergarten and elementary school children. Research shows that parental involvement in arts is also likely to influence the performance of children in that field (Xu, 2017). It means that parents who are dancers, music singers/songwriters/producing or actively involved in theatre will also want their children to follow the same path. Performing arts also improve a child’s cognitive development (Xu, 2017). The cognitive development is enhanced through certain brain changes as a child becomes involved in painting, dance, music or theatre (Xu, 2017). In addition, children who participate in performing arts are able to interact positively with others that eventually improve their social interaction skills in future (Xu, 2017).
According to Crowe (2007), dance enhances physical development of children due to a continuous movement that uses energy. Furthermore, it promotes creativity and imagination by responding to the rhythm of music (Crowe, 2007). Moreover, social interaction through movement is also improved because dancing is fun (Crowe, 2007). Dance also promotes cognitive and emotional development that translates into excellent academic success for children at both kindergarten and elementary level (Smith et al., 2015). Further research demonstrates that dance improves motor skills, builds confidence, promotes tolerance and creates tolerance among children (Smith et al., 2015). Moreover, learning a dance routine or choreography requires patience and determination, both useful for children in other endeavors such as academics. Dance can also help children relieve stress and explore their emotions for better development (Smith et al., 2015). More importantly through dance, children can be able to discover new ways to perceive, feel, move and understand themselves and those around them (Crowe, 2007). Dance also contributes to cultural development by enabling children to move to rhythm from different cultures around the world (Crowe, 2007).
Another example of fine arts that contributes to children’s development is drama. Drama is facilitated through movement and speech to recreate past events, tell a story or offer insight into a particular aspect of life through dramatization (Crowe, 2007). Drama is essential to physical and cognitive development through the enhancement of creativity and problem-solving skills (Crowe, 2007). The spoken dialogue facilitates speech development among children who learn how to vary their voices according to the mood. Drama extends the concept of play in childhood development only that in this case, the situation is controlled (Crowe, 2007). It is because the play is crucial for social skills to enable children differentiating between fantasy and reality (Crowe, 2007). Role play and characterizations aspects of drama enable children to learn to work in small groups (Crowe, 2007). Music is a powerful performing art that every child should be exposed to for cognitive and emotional development. It allows children to both expresses themselves and communicates at the same time (Crowe, 2007). Children have been known to respond to music more than any other form of art even before they are born. The logic is that children are able to perceive sounds in a more accurate way, making them able to appreciate music at an early age (Crowe, 2007). Music that also allows the playing of instruments such as flutes, piano, drums etc. brings joy to children and helps them connect with their creative side (Crowe, 2007).Furthermore, music is great for the soul by uplifting one’s spirits and creating positive energy for other life pursuits (Crowe, 2007). Studies reveal that music can lead to academic achievement by energizing the brain, boosting memory and improving concentration (Xu, 2017; Hsiao, 2015).
Parent’s attitudes towards children’s performance
Despite the well-known benefits of performance arts in promoting children’s performance, the attitudes from parents on that subject can be varied. Hsiao (2015), examines the parent's attitude to art education in Taiwan and the findings offer insight on the relationship between parental attitudes and performance. First, the reasons why art education is advocated for by both parents and the government in Taiwan is identified (Hsiao, 2015). Most parents in Taiwan believe that due to the diversity of performing arts, their children will be able to expand their media and cultural experience (Hsiao, 2015). Such cultural experiences are facilitated by music, dance or theatre from other countries. For example, Korean pop music can expose and broaden Taiwanese children’s knowledge of Korean culture. Performing arts are also considered to increase cognitive activity and improve emotional expression among children (Hsiao, 2015). Through arts, children find an avenue to express their opinions, emotions, and feelings in a creative manner (Hsiao, 2015). The best reason why most parents develop a positive attitude towards arts is the line between art and academic achievement. Research shows that those who excel in arts report an improvement in academic achievement (Hsiao, 2015; Smith et al., 2015). However, there are many factors that can influence the attitudes of parents towards performing arts. They include gender of the children, the school level, gender of the parent, age of the parents and also the educational level of the parents (Hsiao, 2015). The result showed that over 78% of children who undertook to perform arts classes in Taiwan were females (Hsiao, 2015). It means those parents have a misconception that art is for females and therefore, respond positively if their female children want to enroll in art education at school. Furthermore, almost 36% (the majority enrolled their children in kindergarten classes that offer to learn in arts (Hsiao, 2015). The logic is that arts talent needs to be nurtured from a young age and kindergarten is the best choice to do that. Among the participants who enrolled their children in performing arts classes, 61% had a bachelor’s degree and above (Hsiao, 2015). Highly educated parents had a significantly higher appreciation of the arts and could influence their children to enroll in art classes (Hsiao, 2015). Older parents preferred high order arts such as painting, classical music, and theatre while young ones preferred to dance and pop music (Hsiao, 2015).
Studies also indicate that whether arts contribute to the attractiveness of a school during enrollment from potential students (Bamford & Wimmer, 2012).It means that whether a school has an art program or not will influence the choice of parents in sending their children to that particular school. Parents believe that also the quality of the art program will ultimately determine the performance of their children, hence better development (Bamford & Wimmer, 2012). Art encourages autonomy and reinforces cultural identity among children (Bamford & Wimmer, 2012). In such cases, the parent’s attitude will ultimately influence the performance of children in arts more than any other factor (Coleman, 1997). Parents who recognize that art performance is an individual effort rather than some sort of genetic inheritance will encourage their children to push themselves and do their best whether in dance, music or drama. The school administration is expected by parents to create an environment that meets the educational needs of children in performing arts (Bamford & Wimmer, 2012). Studies show that it is not only parent’s attitudes that play a role in children’s development but rather also those of caregivers given some form of parental authority(Aii et al., 2015). Caregivers such as nannies have a great influence on children’s cognitive and emotional development (Aii et al., 2015). For example, in Europe, aristocratic families hired nannies with extensive knowledge and skills in arts to nurture their children. The logic was that a nanny who was skilled in dance, music or painting will be able to spark an interest on the same from the child before they begin formal training. It also meant that while parents could be harsh and cruel in monitoring the performance of their children in arts, nannies could give an encouragement leading to better performance.
Parental attitudes will also influence their involvement in children’s performance whether at home or in school (Henning. 2013). Parents, who feel that it is their duty to facilitate the development of their children through monitoring their performance, will likely take a more active involvement (Henning, 2013). Such parents will want to play a greater role in the children’s performance than just leave it up to the teachers/tutors. For example, a parent who feels that his/her drumming skills can be used to improve his child’s playing drums will create time to oversee the same after school hours. However, those who feel that because they are singers or dancers, their children need to automatically also be good at that will take a more passive role in their performance (Henning, 2013). Such passive parents will give undue pressure to their children to do better in performing arts thinking that it’s beneficial to them. However, such actions will only make the child perform poorly rather than aid in improving his achievement with a flute, piano, drums or dance choreography. Parents who are hard to please or unable to offer any form of encouraging hinder learning instead of promoting it (Tzanakis, 2011). Although some do that with varying success because children become motivated to perform better in order to win their parent’s approval, majority rarely succeed. The frustration arising from the inability to succeed in playing a musical instrument to appease their parents eventually hinders their growth and development into adulthood.Such children develop low levels of self-confidence, self-efficacy and self-esteem that hinder their social interaction, emotional and cognitive development to build a legacy in life (Smith et al., 2015). The best way for parents to positively contribute to their children’s art performance is to manage their expectations well (Holmes, 2013). One way of managing their expectations is by parent’s acknowledging and accepting their children’s cognitive abilities (Holmes, 2013). It means that if a parent knows that their child is intellectually gifted in music, they can encourage him/her realize that potential. For example, Mozart’s parents encouraged his pursuit of arts because they realized his musical ingenuity at an early age. For those with lower intellectual abilities, parent’s don’t need to actively press them to the pursuit of arts when their passion lies somewhere else other than that. Those who fail to manage their expectations as parents will also become frustrated and reduce their involvement in the child’s performance and subsequent development (Holmes, 2013). Parents who are highly educated have a better chance of managing their expectation when it comes to performance but are also the ones likely to do more harm than good (Aii et al., 2015; Holmes, 2013). Those who fail to manage their expectations, develop a bad attitude towards art education that results in more drop-out rates and lower graduation rates for their children (Holmes, 2013). Studies have found a link between a mother’s behavior and a student’s academic achievement (Holmes, 2013). It also means that mothers who are loving and caring towards their children in encouraging them to learn to perform arts are more likely to perform better in the art chosen for them (Holmes, 2013).
Children’s motivation as a result of parental attitudes
The parent’s attitude can serve as a motivator or a de-motivator to the child’s performance. The attitude of the parents towards arts will determine whether they will motivate their children towards better performance or not (Hsiao, 2015). Parents can offer either intrinsic or extrinsic motivation to their children. Some parents can choose to offer extrinsic rewards such as a trip to Disney if their child masters a difficult dance routine, increase in their allowances, a new bike or a road trip to overseas countries such as France among others. As much as a positive attitude from a parent involving extrinsic motivation may motivate them to do better, the performance might not be long-term (Henning, 2013). It's because with rewards children feel that their parents do not have time for them and only cover that such shortcoming with material possessions. However, intrinsic motivation (child’s inner drive to succeed) has been shown to be a very strong motivator for performance both in arts and academics (Henning, 2013; Xu, 2017). With intrinsic motivation, no external rewards are involved. The reason why some of the best talents in music, dance, painting, and theatre have come from low-income families is the absence of material rewards but more emphasis on the inner drive from parents towards their children (Crowe, 2007). Parents who demonstrated strong values towards achievement will internally motivate their children to perform better to live up to those values and expectations (Henning, 2013; Lazarides et al., 205). For example, if a child knows that his/her parents value playing the keyboard or piano, the child will strive to also perform better on the keyboard or any other musical instrument. One way parents can offer intrinsic motivation is through endless and unconditional support to their children (Henning, 2013). Support is best demonstrated in the words of encouragement that boost the child’s confidence and self-esteem when undertaking difficult tasks. Parental support is a strong morale booster to any child. For instance, parents can ensure they attend theatre auditions, dance competitions and music performances involving their children. However, it is crucial that the timing of motivating children be just right (Henning, 2013). For instance, motivation should be provided early in life for it to have the desired effect on a child’s performance. If done later in life, the benefits to the child will be null and even elicit a cold response rather than warmly welcome the motivation. However, in terms of academic achievement parental beliefs on motivation increase as the year's progress (Lazarides et al., 2015). The achievement of children in their adulthood highly relies on their perception towards their parent’s motivation in their childhood (Lazarides et al., 2015). The parents perceived competence and self-ability of their children ultimately influences their attitudes on performance (Lazarides, et al., 2015). The way a parent relates or behaves towards their children performance will shape the child’s perception of self-concept (Lazarides et al., 2015).
Social capital and children’s performance
The theory of social capital views capital as resources vested in social relationships (Tzanakis, 2011; Coleman, 1997). Social capital is basing on social relationships to reap benefits (Rogosic & Baranovic, 2016). Unlike social capital, cultural capital focusses on transmitted cultural practices from a parent to a child in the hope of boosting the child’s performance (Tzanakis, 2011). Bourdieu in the social reproduction thesis claims that cultural capital gives noble-born children an academic advantage over those from lower social class (Boudieu & Passeron, 1977 as cited in Tzanakis, 2011). The cultural capital focusses on the influence of family on a child’s educational development (Tzanakis, 2011). However, this emphasis on cultural capital has its own limitations. For instance, research shows that teachers are also biased in rewarding children from elite cultures in education instead of relying on their academic performance (Tzanakis, 2011). In contrast, social capital emphasizes that parent’s attitudes influence children’s performance rather than the cultural influence of parents (Rogosic & Baranovic, 2016; Coleman, 1997). Coleman (1997) reiterates that the quality of family relationships (social capital), plays a significant role in academic achievement. Coleman proves that social capital(parental attitudes) impacts children’s performance in disregard of cultural capital by looking at academic achieved of children from less privileged families(1997; Rogosic & Baranovic, 2016). He argues that when parent strives to preserve special relationships between themselves and their children, the education achievement will improve significantly (Coleman, 1997; Rogosic & Baranovic, 2016).Through social capital, social status due to elite culture plays a minor role in education (Tzanakis, 2011). Children from low-income families have strong bonds with their families that serve as a motivator to achieve higher grades and give their parents a better life in future. Acar (2011) concluded that social capital causes better academic performance among students lacking the cultural elitism for better development. Social capital leads to higher graduation rates, low dropouts, higher college enrollment and more participation in school and community activities (Acar, 2011).
Evidence indicates that cultural capital in education has varying results in minority ethnic and racial groups (Tzanakis, 2011). Research shows that in many places, academic achievement can be attributed to human capital, social and financial capital rather than cultural capital (Tzanakis, 2011). It’s a well-known fact in the education circles that children from rich families are seldom the brightest (Coleman, 1997). According to Tzanakis (2011) also shows that increasing cultural capital does not translate to improvement in children development. For example, African-Americans have been able to increase their cultural capital but most black children still lag behind in academic achievement (Tzanakis, 2011). African-Americans still experience the highest drop rates and the lowest graduation rates as compared to Caucasian students (Tzanakis, 2011). As a matter of fact, cultural capital has negatively impacted Black children’s performance in education due to other factors such as institutionalized racism (Tzanakis, 2011). However, due to the parental attitude of African American parents towards arts such as dance and music, their children have produced some of the best musical talents the world has ever seen. Other studies have shown that parental involvement in children’s performance increases where there is adequacy in cultural capital (Ho, 2009). The research by Ho (2009), shows that Asian parents place a higher value on cultural capital for children’s performance than social capital. For Asian children, living up to their parents’ cultural expirations is all that they aspire and their parent’s attitudes matter little to them (Ho, 2009).
Conclusion
Indeed the parental attitudes and performing arts play a significant role in the development of young children. Furthermore, cultural capital plays a minimal role in the way children learn performing arts. Positive attitudes from parents with less “cultural elitism” have shown to motivate their children to achieve great success in performing arts. Therefore, social capital plays a greater role in children’s development than cultural background. The literature review implies that parental attitudes should serve as positive reinforcement to learn performing arts such as music, drama, theater or dance. However, more research still needs to be done on how parental interaction leads to better child development. Additionally, there is need for studies that explore modalities on how to integrate both social and cultural capital in performing rather than proving one theory is superior to another.
References
Ai Yue, Yaojiang Shi, Renfu Luo, Jamie Chen, James Garth, Jimmy Zhang, Alexis Medina, Scott Rozelle(2015). Caregiver Attitudes, Parenting Behavior and Developmental Delays in Children Aged 18-30 Months: A Mixed Methods Analysis in Rural China. Retrieved from https://reap.fsi.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/285_-_caregiver_attitudes_parenting_behavior_and_developmental_delays_in_children_aged_18-30_months.pdf
Acar, E.(2011). Effects of social capital on academic success: A narrative synthesis. Educational Research and Reviews Vol. 6 (6), pp. 456-461. http://www.academicjournals.org/ERR
Bamford, A., & Wimmer, M.(2012). The role of arts education in enhancing school attractiveness: A literature review.Retrieved from http://www.kulturnibazar.si/data/upload/school_attractiveness_paper_final_website.pdf
Barnes-Smith, Danielle L.; Frotz, Jordan; Ito, HanaSara; Kohorst, Johannah; and Vascimini, Emily, (2015). Expressive arts as a means of increasing well-being in children. Undergraduate Theses and Professional Papers. 37. https://scholarworks.umt.edu/utpp/37. Retrieved from ttps://scholarworks.umt.edu/utpp/37/?utm_source=scholarworks.umt.edu%2Futpp%2F37&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages
Coleman, J. S. (1994). Family, school, and social capital. Int. Husen & T. N.Postlethwaite (Eds.), International encyclopedia of education (2nd ed., ). Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Crowe, S.(2007). Dance, Drama, and Music – a Foundation for Education: A Study on Implementing the Performing Arts in the Early Years of Education. Retrieved from https://researchbank.rmit.edu.au/eserv/rmit:6350/Crowe.pdf
Henning, K.J.(2013). Attitude and achievement: A study of parents and student attitudes towards education and their effect on achievement. Retrieved from https://soar.wichita.edu/bitstream/handle/10057/10634/t13086_Henning.pdf?sequence=1
Ho, S.E(2009). Educational Leadership for Parental Involvement in an Asian Context: Insights from Bourdieu’s Theory of Practice. The School Community Journal, Vol. 19, No. 2, 101-123. Retrieved from http://www.adi.org/journal/fw09%5CHoFall2009.pdf
Holmes, K.E(2013). Influences of parental expectations and involvement on academic success. Retrieved from http://csus-dspace.calstate.edu/bitstream/handle/10211.9/2116/Thesis-%20Final%20Draft%20Formatted.pdf?sequence=1
Hsiao, C.Y.(2015). Current Kindergarten Parents’ Attitudes toward and Beliefs about Children’s Art Education in Majority Cities and Counties of Taiwan. International Education Studies; Vol. 8, No. 4, pp.80-95 Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1060980.pdf
Lazarides, R., Harackiewicz, J., Canning, E., Pesu, L., & Viljaranta, J. (2015). The role of parents in students' motivational beliefs and values. In C. Rubie-Davies, J. Stephens, & P. Watson (Eds.), The Routledge International Handbook of Social Psychology of the Classroom (pp. 5). Routledge.
Rogosic, S., & Baranovic, B.(2016). Social Capital and Educational Achievements: Coleman vs. Bourdieu. c e p s Journal | Vol.6 | No 2, PP.81- 101. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1128914.pdf
Tzanakis, M,(2011). Bourdieu’s Social Reproduction Thesis and The Role of Cultural Capital in Educational Attainment: A Critical Review of Key Empirical Studies. Educate Vol. 11, No. 1 , pp. 76-90. Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9bf5/835c62ec1e4b1d155c9396f75973cd548895.pdf
Xu, J.(2017). Students’ Engagement and Parents’ Involvement in Extracurricular Activities. Retrieved from http://web.uvic.ca/~mroth/teaching/598A-17Fall/Xu_Jian_MEd_2017.pdf
