Mindfulness was practice in ancient times among the Buddhism and refers to a psychological state of awareness. Currently, this practice is widely used in nonclinical treatments of symptoms related to cognition, emotions, bodily-sensational, and external stimuli. The method has proved to be beneficial in stress reduction as well as controlling third-wave cognitive behavior such as dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR), mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) and acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) (Cash, 2010). For instance, the mindfulness meditation practice known as Vipassana is commonly used in the identification and treatment of psychological symptoms and well-being. Therefore, this research paper aim at establishing the relationship which exists between mindfulness, anxiety, and stress.
Keywords: Mindfulness, Stress, Anxiety
Introduction
Mindfulness is a term used to refer to the psychological state of awareness (Lilien et al, 2015). Mindfulness has an ancient origin whereby it was closely related with the Buddhism. It is a practice that plays a vital role in promoting and awareness, mode of process information as well as a characterological trait. Mindfulness provides an individual with a moment-by-moment awareness and experience but excludes judgment (Davis, 2011). In many instances, mindfulness act as a technique which involves the development of knowledge and acceptance of change in various experimental phenomena involving cognition, bodily-sensational, external stimuli, and emotions (Cash, 2010). It is a trait known to provide essential benefits to emotion regulation, apathy, counseling skills, decreasing reactivity, decreasing stress, and anxiety, increasing flexibility among others (Davis, 2011). Since the 1980s, mindfulness has been essential and increasingly used in clinical psychology on issues which involve cognitive or behavioral behavior. The practice have gained popularity in recent years due its ability and functioning in stress reduction programs as well as its vital role in third-wave cognitive behavior such as dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR), mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) and acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) (Cash, 2010).
According to Bergin and Pakenham (2016), prolonged or excessive stress have an adverse effect to the health and wellbeing of human beings and in most cases results to a range of issues related to behavioral, psychological or physical health (Bergin, 2016). However, studies have indicated the usefulness of mindfulness practices in the treatment of health and wellbeing of an individual. For instance, the mindfulness meditation practice known as Vipassana is commonly used in the identification and treatment of psychological symptoms and wellbeing (Cash, 2010). Also, researchers have indicated that mindfulness-based stress reduction can be useful in reducing anxiety and depression among symptoms in individuals. Therefore, the practice can be helpful in predicting and controlling behavior and psychological problems which affect our daily life such as issues relationship dissatisfaction. As Barnes et al. (2007) put it, there are likelihoods that mindfulness is inversely correlated with distress contagion and directly associated with the ability to perform with awareness when we are in a social situation (Davis, 2011). In this research paper, it is hypothesized that rise in mindfulness is likely to be highly correlated with low level of stress and anxiety. Besides, it was hypothesized that those participants with prior experience on mindfulness training was likely to self-report with less ascertained stress compared to those with no previous training in mindfulness.
Method
Participants
In the research article by Bergin and Pakenham, the study involved 647 university students doing Bachelor of Laws in one of the Universities in Queensland (Bergin, 2016). 481 participants provided responses which were sufficiently complete for data analysis (>80 %). Out of the 481 participants, 70.76 % were females and 29.24 % males with a mean age of 21.90 years (Bergin, 2016). 91.01% of the students involved were enrolled on a full-time basis compared to only 8.99% enrolled on a part-time basis. Also, participants were from the various year of study with 22.51% in the first year, 22.29% in the second year, 21.44% in the third year, and 33.76% in the fourth year of study. Percentage of the participants who filled out the questionnaire and were employed was 66.4% compared to only 33.55% who were unemployed. Finally, those who didn't practice meditation represented 93.01% and those who practiced meditation were 6.99% (Bergin, 2016).
The research article by Cash and Whittingham involved 106 participants. Out of the total participants, male represented 36.79% while female represented 59.43%. Those who had prior experience with meditation were represented 73.30% while those with no experience with meditation represented 26.70%. Meditation practice duration per day was 19.86 minutes (Cash, 2010).
Measures
Research by Bergin and Pakenham utilized an online questionnaire comprising of seven self-report measures. All tests used had satisfactory reliability and validity. The 39-item Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) was used to measure five specific mindfulness facets namely describing, observing, acting with awareness, non-reactivity to inner experience and non-judging of intimate knowledge. The 16-item Law Student Perceived Stress Scale (LSPSS) was used to measure perceived stress in the participants (Bergin, 2016). There was four subscale measured by the scale namely social isolation, academic demands, study/life imbalance, and career pressure (Bergin, 2016). Participants were requested to indicate the extent to which these stressful items affected them during their life in the school of law. Besides, the short-form Depression Anxiety Stress Scale was used to measure depression and anxiety symptoms. The scale was administered in the form of a well-established screening questionnaire. On the other hand, life satisfaction was measured using a 5-item Satisfaction with Life Scale. It is a global measure of life satisfaction. Lastly, the 54-item Ryff Psychological Well-being Scale was utilized during the measurement of psychological well-being. The scale entails the measure of six specific elements of positive functioning namely autonomy, positive relationship with others, self- acceptance, environmental mastery, personal growth, and purpose of life (Bergin, 2016).
The research by Cash and Whittingham utilized various tools of assessment. The Five-Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire was used to measure mindfulness and entailed analyzing all the items on a Likert scale. The five-factor analysed included Act-aware, Describe, Observe, Nonjudge, and Nonreact (Cash, 2010). The use of The Depression indicated Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale, Anxiety, Stress Scale (DASS), which is a 42-item scale used to measure anxious, depressive, and symptoms related to stress appropriate for a nonclinical population. Lastly, the Personal Well-being Index (PWI) was used to measure the overall wellbeing of the participants (Cash, 2010). The index utilised eight scale items.
Procedure
Bergin and Pakenham collected data using an online questionnaire. Students from three Queensland law schools were involved, and participation was voluntary. There were no exclusion activities, and students used their university portals to participate. However, many students who accessed the university portal couldn't be monitored (Bergin, 2016). The second study by Cash and Whittingham involved measures being presented in the form of online questionnaires. The survey was ascertained by The University of Queensland's School of Psychology (Cash, 2010). Participation was voluntary, and the questionnaire used had an introductory part which provided participants with working definitions of participation requirements, mindfulness and mindfulness practices, ethical clearance, research contact information, and confirming voluntary and anonymous participation (Cash, 2010). All those participants who expressed interest in participating in filling out the questionnaire were automatically directed to the questionnaire itself.
Results
Results for the research conducted by Bergin and Pakenham
Anxiety
Step 1
β
Total R2
∆R2
Age
-.20***
Gender
.10*
.05
.05***
Step 2
Stress
.43***
.23.
.18***
Step 3a
Total MF
-.28***
.30
.07***
Step 4
Stress× Total MF
-.09*
.30
.01*
Step 3b
O
.11
D
-.10*
AA
-.15***
NJ
-.21***
NR
-.07
.36
.13***
Step 4b
Stress ×O
-0.1**
Stress ×D
-.10*
Stress ×AA
-.02
Stress ×NJ
.00
Stress ×NR
.01
.37
.01
Table 1 showing the hierarchical multiple regression analysis of perceived stress and mindfulness on anxiety
N.B. Stress=total perceived stress, Total MF=total mindfulness O-observing, D-describing, AA-acting with awareness, NJ-non-judging of inner experience, NR-non-reactivity to intimate experience (Bergin, 2016).
Results for the research conducted by Cash and Whittingham
Mindfulness Facets had Predictors Four hierarchical multiple regressions were performed. It involved analysis criterion variable among them anxiety, stress and two others. Step 1 was the control and involved entering demographic variables of age, occupation as a mental health worker, and education. Relationship obtained between these demographic variables and the criterion variables were as follows; anxiety, R=.345, F (3, 68) =3.071, p=.034, and stress, R=.219, F (3, 70) =1.175, ns, were negligible (Cash, 2010). Step 2 of the four hierarchical multiple regressions revealed that summing up the five mindfulness facets as predictors provided a considerable increase in total variance (R2 change) for both anxiety and stress. Criterion variables: anxiety, F-change (5, 63) = 3.296, p=.010; and stress, F-change (5, 65) =2.639, p=.031 (Cash, 2010). The variables characteristics of participants were as shown: Sex; Male 36.79% and Female 59.43%, Age 36.83 years (SD=16.16), (range=17–72). Participants having experience with meditation were 73.30%, those with no meditation experience were 26.70%. Meditation practice per minutes/day 19.86 (SD=38.70) (range=0–180) (Cash, 2010).
Discussion
The research by Bergin and Pakenham aimed at examining the possible stress causing the role of mindfulness in the relationship pertaining perceived stress, and anxiety among students in the school of law. From the research, it is evident that higher levels of mindfulness have a close relationship with better psychological adjustment on stress and anxiety after age (Bergin, 2016). Analysis of total levels of mindfulness shows that the stress-buffering effects of mindfulness of anxiety occurred at both ends of high and low-stress conditions. Similarly, there was an emergence of clear buffering on the mindful subscale, which indicates the existence of the relationship between perceived stress and anxiety (Bergin, 2016). The explanation for these findings can be given be given attributed to the decrease of exposure to depression and anxiety caused by high stress when the levels of mindfulness are high.
Results from the second study conducted by Cash and Whittingham it was found that the strength to resist from judging an individual’s cognitions, bodily sensations and emotions caused a decrease in the level of anxiety and stress (Cash, 2010). Besides, the ability to maintain knowhow while performing daily activities created low levels of anxiety, stress, and depression (Cash, 2010). Furthermore, Act-aware was highly correlated with psychological symptoms and can be important when predicting psychological symptoms. However, the study did not provide a definite conclusion indicating the relationship between anxiety and stress-related symptoms with specific mindful facets (Cash, 2010).
Conclusion
In conclusion, from the results obtained from these studies, it is clear that there exists a close relationship between mindfulness, anxiety and stress-related symptoms. When the levels of mindfulness are high, anxiety and stress are recorded to reduce. Also, those individuals with prior exposure to mindfulness have a better performance than those with no previous experience when dealing with anxiety or stress-related symptoms.
References
Bergin, A. J. (2016). The stress-buffering role of mindfulness in the relationship between perceived stress and psychological adjustment. Mindfulness, 7(4), 928-939.
Cash, M. ". (2010). What facets of mindfulness contribute to psychological well-being and depressive, anxious, and stress-related symptomatology? Mindfulness, 1(3), 177-182.
Davis, D. M. (2011). What are the benefits of mindfulness? A practice review of psychotherapy-related research . Psychotherapy, 48(2), 198.
Lilien et al, S. L. (2015). Psychology: From Inquiry to Understanding (2nd ed.). Melbourne: Pearson Australia.
