In recent years, most construction of buildings is conducted using both the ancient and modern methods. Buildings existed from long ago history which were constructed mainly for reasons of shelter provision. However, modern buildings have undergone revolutionary changes including the use of various types of construction materials such as timber, stones, metal, concrete, and glass (Topliss 20). Therefore, the main objective of this essay is to explain the different types of low-rise construction which includes explaining the various designs including their foundations construction. In addition, the essay is meant to explain the numerous types of techniques used in the construction of superstructures as well as insinuation of subjects and limitations on building erection.
Topic Analysis
There are various types of low-rise construction used in modern construction of both commercial and domestic buildings. Concrete frame is the most common system used. The concrete mostly covers the aluminum, glass, and bricks and is attached to the external wall of the building. Secondly, steel frame structures are ideal for areas prone to earthquakes due to their strong and flexible materials. Thirdly, wood frames construction are best used for erection of low-rise and residential structures. Finally, load bearing wall construction comprises of heavy bricks and walls made of stone that are meant to support the horizontal slabs of the floor (Harris and McCaffer 22).
The Procedure Involved in Subsoil Investigation (P2)
Considering the procedures involved in subsoil investigation, several factors should be taken into account. The information received is geotechnical which is safe and economical for proper geotechnical design and evaluation. The general site conditions are analysed and used to provide the anticipated problems in the design aimed. The procedure for instance in boring which is the drilling and advancing the hole on the ground provides the data in terms of nature of the soils, terrain, depth, and trial pitting. Trial pitting provides information on the type of stratification, strength, and shear surfaces. Boring on the other hand in which light persecution, wash boring, and power augering. Testing and sampling determines the information about the properties of the soil and this is done in the laboratory (Jahan, Edwards, and Bahraminasab 34).
Principles of Foundation Design (P3)
When designing a foundation, the load carrying capacity of the beam, the extent to which it will bend and whether to expect other impacts such as moisture and movement must be considered. The calculated beam section must be able to support the load in order to avoid disproportionate deflection. Moreover, if weak, the beam can either be changed or be replaced with different type of mechanical component or supplemented with a firm material.
Additionally, the soil meant to support the structure must as well be strong. It is essential to have sufficient bearing capacity to avoid unduly deflection. The bearing capacity and settlement of this soil should have a long-term effect. For that case, if the ground is weak, it may be unable to support the earlier suggested load design. As such, the structural contact load can be minimised by scattering the load through widening the foundation size. Alternatively, the load can be mitigated by moving it to a lower level. The ground can also be made strong through other means namely compaction, stabilisation, and preconsolidation. Considering that the mechanical material in the superstructure are legible to movement, strain, and stress, it is important to put into consideration soil that support the superstructure
as a mechanical material with equally subject to pressure, strain and drive. Therefore, accuracy needs to be upheld by the designer during foundation design (Harris and McCaffer 48).
The Methods Used to Construct Three Different Types of Foundations (P4)
There are a number of methods that can be employed to construct defined or specific types of foundations. When building domestic and commercial building foundations, it is advisable to use Raft, Piled, and Pad foundations.
Raft Foundation
Raft foundation consists of large concrete slabs that function in supporting several walls and columns. When in construction, the contact pressure is lowered due to the use of the slab, which is spread into the entire building. In this regard, the type of foundation is mostly used in sandy and loose soils. The methods of constructing the raft foundation may include digging out the whole area to a specific depth and followed by a bed that is sprinkled over with water and compacted. The ground beam from the foundation base which is attached to the ground floor slab. Therefore, this forms a network of concrete which is embedded all over the building space. For low buildings, the dimensions of the ground beam are usually ranging from 600mm to 1200mm (Jahan, Edwards, and Bahraminasab 20). The raft foundation is indicated by the annotated figure. The figure indicates the components, dimensions, and the materials used in making the foundation.
Figure 1. Annotated sketch for raft foundation (Chudley and Greeno)
Figure 2 shows the sketches for the raft foundation with the measurements, parts, membranes, types of floor, and components in it. The raft concrete and sand layers are always put 200mm and 75mm respectively in the raft foundation as shown by the figure.
Figure 2. Raft foundation showing the membranes, floors, and the measurements (Chudley and Greeno 33)
Piled Foundation
Considering piled foundation, a number of methods are used to construct piled foundations. For piled foundation, the bearing capacity of the soil is not well developed. Moreover, when the loads imposed are heavy, piled foundations become deemed option. In this regard, the two types of piles: end bearing piles and friction piles. The methods of construction of piles include precast driven and cast-in-place. Considering cast-in-place method, a thin walled steel is hammered into the ground, all the earth that has been left inside the tube is removed, then casting of concrete that is pure and free from debris. Precast driven method entails the use of a pile driver to hammer the first cast into the ground (Taylor 17). The figure 3 below indicates the sketches showing shows the dimensions of the pile foundation, the type of materials and components used, and the function of each part or component of the foundation.
Figure 3: Annotated Sketches showing the pile foundation and its components (Foundation Resolutions).
Figure 4 shows the bridge beams used in making the pile foundation. The components are pile cap and the elastrometric bearing.
Figure 4: A diagram of the pile foundation showing the bridge beams (University of Bristol)
Pad Foundation
This type is a shallow and spread foundation that is formed using square, rectangular, or circular concrete pads. The pads can be haunched and stepped when in construction depending on the cost of the labor. Reinforcement is also done to enhance the stability by use of heavy steel grillage (Topliss 45). The annotated sketch is represented by figure 5 below which shows the dimensions of the pad foundation, the type of materials and components used, and the function of each part or component of the foundation. Additionally, figure 6 shows the beams, layers, and reinforced concrete as the basic components of the pad foundation.
Figure 5: Annotated Sketch of the Pad Foundation (Chudley, Roy, and Roger 56)
Justification of the Selection of Materials and Techniques for Use in Construction (D1)
During the construction of superstructures, there are specific materials and technique choice threshold that have to be met. Bricks are mostly used in constructions due to their cheap price durability, they do not require constant maintenance, and are visually pleasing. When constructing the roof, pitched roof is mostly used. Therefore, the roof thrust is at an angle of 39o, hence, it is easy to use the attic space, especially for living space. Another technique of roofing is flat roof mostly used when there is an extension for the house. The technique enhances heat loss during hot seasons (Bayan 74).
Furthermore, timber structures can be used in construction. They are easier and cheaper to install in any building structure or site. Steel frames are the best to use instead of brick and timber since steel does not warp, rot, or twist compared to wood and bricks. In addition to that, steel is lighter than wood and brick and thus is efficient in building commercial structures. However, steel is affected by moisture and high temperatures since it can rot and expensive to build structures using steel since it requires expertise. Additionally, porotherm can be used and it’s made from clay bricks which are joined by mortar and it can be made easily and faster. As such, porotherm can be used at any temperature since it contain zero mortar which is helpful in withstanding temperatures that are below zero and above (Bayan 59).
Environmental Performance and modern Material and Techniques Used in Construction (DI)
When constructing commercial and domestic dwellings, the environment and performance of the materials is put into consideration especially for high BREEAM rating to be achieved. There are a number of materials and techniques applied in the construction of superstructures. As such, there are a number of structures but a few of them have a good environmental performance. For instance, the structures in the two building include; SIP (Structural Insulated Panels) panels and poroframe. The SIP panels are used for domestic buildings and have several significance when used as structures for building. As a result they provide the best environmental performance because they possess high insulation value, they are environmentally friendly materials, and they bear little wastage (Bayan 70).
Porotherm structures are made of clay bricks which are environmentally friendly since most of the materials are made from secondary, alternative or recycled sources. For example, the a porotherm may be recycled from clay, paper, and sawdust. As a result these materials are used to make porotherm, which has high thermal mass and can last for long.
Principle of Superstructure Design (P5)
Superstructures are meant to make a structure to be waterproof. A superstructure comprises of the roofs, doors, windows, and walls. The various main principles of a superstructure include being stable, comfortable, secure, weather proof, safe and eye-catching.
Stable
Stable principle means that the outside covering of a structure should be protected from harsh weather conditions from either sides while still allowing the building to breath. Furthermore, strength of any building originates from the exterior barriers though it may need more structural walls as it gets bigger. Concrete and steel facilitate building tall and wide buildings making them stronger and stable (Bayan 58). Adding cladding, windows, and doors make a structure not only steady but also weatherproof.
Comfortable
A building should have a superstructure that is comfortable enough and should allow in reasonable amount of natural daylight. In this view, the optimal lighting is achieved by proper positioning of windows and doors or by using skylights and roof lanterns. Moreover, thermal or sound comfort attained through setting up heating systems such as heat radiators and air conditioning units. Proper window fitting and air conditioning-though expensive, may be more appropriate in commercial buildings to bring down temperatures. Besides, sound comfort is necessary and is best achieved through sound proofing done by using heavy dense materials such as concrete known to absorb sound.
Secure
Occupants and possessions in a building should be free from theft and damage. Lockable doors and windows, suitable citing of a building, and the use of the right materials during construction limit the exposure of the occupants and possessions from such risks (Jahan, Edwards, and Bahraminasab 19).
Weather proof
Roofs shield from rain as well as preserve heat within the structure. An inclined roof together with using overlapping tiles allows easy rain water flow in the roof with vapor escape and heat expansion occurring. Fascia boards and soffits should be fitted to help in sealing gaps under eaves as the overhangs of the roof help protect the wall from rains. To avoid localised flooding, guttering and downpipes need to be fixed. More so, windows and doors help air to circulate in the building when necessary (Chattopadhyay and Maity 29).
Safe and Attractive
A building inspector should check on the safety of a building as highlighted in the building rules and regulations. Risks such as fire and staircase injuries and accidents need to be put into consideration. In matters of health, hygiene within, and without a premise should be upheld for safety purposes of the residents.
Looks and physical appearance are also important to a premise. Failing to make a building good looking, may lead to fail to market the building to the highest bidders available. Residents also be attracted to a well-furnished building making it hotcake for possible people who may need to reside there.
Techniques Used to Construct and Finish the Elements of Superstructure for Low-Rise Domestic and Commercial Buildings (P6)
Three main techniques applicable in construction and finishing of an efficient substructure of a building include plant machinery, manpower and temporary equipment.
Plant Machinery
There are various tasks to be carried out manually and needs heavy machinery to help ease the tasks. The main advantages of using machinery is that it saves time and also makes a task very simple. Machinery may be needed in foundation digging, cement mixing and room cooling after plastering.
Manpower
Furthermore, this is the most crucial requirement necessary in substructure construction. It is highly needed in matters of organising, building and running the project effectively from starting to finish. Once in the construction site, laborer’s skill and experience is needed to perform the task at a quality level possible (Chattopadhyay and Maity 22-25).
Temporary Equipment
Temporary equipment may be needed on site, especially for finishing. Installing a temporary equipment on site will in most cases depend with the site manager. For instance, scaffolding may be installed on the construction site to guard workers laboring at tall level from falling.
Once done with the superstructures construction, finishes will be needed in order to complete the construction mainly done on the inside of the building in order to decorate and tidy the inside part of the residence. However, there are factors affecting the nature of finishes used on the inside of the building and include the cost of finishing, purpose, location, color and health and safety of finishing.
The Selection of Materials, Techniques, and the Solutions for the Foundations (M2)
The superstructure is comprised of a number of components which include door, walls, floors, roofs, and stairs. In all these, the materials used in construction is bricks, concrete, clay, and wood (Taylor 37). However, considering the different foundations, there are the solutions for ensuring they remain strong and durable, which involves the use of stable materials that are resistant to heat, water, and rust. In this view, all the materials must be tested and approved to make proper foundations.
Evaluation of Environmental Performance of Modern Materials and Techniques used (D2)
When designing a commercial building or domestic habitat, for quality designing, environmental performance of materials and techniques used need to be considered. There are various materials and skills applicable in the erection of a superstructure. For instance, Structural Insulated Panels (SIP) for caretaker’s house and porotherm for commercial building provide excellent environmental performance and help attain a high BREEAM level. Therefore, SIP are chosen in regards to its advantages like being environmental friendly, high insulation value and minimal wastage.
Porotherm on the side looks like the traditional idea of brick and mortar although porotherm is made of clay bricks and require a relatively smaller amount of mortar. Using porotherm has earned many constructions a splendid BREEAM rating since it has similar advantages as those of SIP (Taylor 29).
Implications of Environmental Issues and Legislative Constraints (P7)
There are various legislative regulations over construction projects which involve building regulations, Health and Safety at Work Act, the Code for Sustainable Homes, and Town and Country Planning. Failure to conform to either of these constrains may attract a penalty on a construction project.
Moreover, there are numerous environmental issues associated with the construction and building which may be positive or negative. The negative ones include limiting factors concerning geographical location, geographical features, hazardous materials, excavation air and noise pollution, traffic and wildlife preservation. Contrary construction has many other positive impacts to the community both geographically and economically. For instance, apart from providing habitats for human and other living things, buildings also control soil erosions, wind breaking and water conservation (Taylor 19).
Purpose of the Various Parts of the Infrastructure (P8)
Workforce
Workforce includes ground workers, laborers, machine drivers, bricklayers, electricians, plumbers as well as site managers and their assistants. Construction process lacking a workforce may come to a standstill making it vital.
Materials
Constant material supply is vital in support of construction process. Material supply may be directly from the producer or from the supplier. Furthermore, delivery planning must be keenly conducted putting into consideration delivery time as well as the necessary material quantity. Moreover, before ordering materials, ensuring availability of sufficient spacing for storage and its security to prevent them from being stolen or rather destroyed is essential.
Welfare
Apart from being a vital part in construction process, welfare is a requirement by the law. The law stipulates that welfare facilities such as toilets, canteens, and hot water access for employees must be provided by the employers.
Machinery
Machinery such as plant machinery, 360 degree excavators, and both large and small cranes are vital in construction process. For instance, plant machinery performs tasks like lifting and transporting of materials and digging. 360 degree excavators dig foundations including uneven ground leveling
Three Pieces of Legislation (M3)
Several pieces of legislation that are placed into consideration prior to and during the erection of a building. The substructures legislation comprise of Health and Safety at Work Act of 1974 legislation, Town and Country Planning, and Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH). Considering the town and country planning legislation, developments will be appropriately planned putting into consideration any individual owning a house that might be affected by any growths. This legislation is applied prior to construction as planning permission must be obtained in order to determine the fitness, suitability and safety of the location and the community. In addition, the legislation applies during construction as planning permits must be obtained on location which aids the planning committee to safely and happily preserve the already existing assets.
Similarly, the health and safety at work act of 1974 endorses and encourages high measures of protection and health in work places. Both the public and the employees are protected from any dangerous work activities that possess harm to them during work periods or in the future and every individual is subjected to the act and failure to abide by it leads to prosecution of that individual in case their deeds lead to injury of another person. Therefore, this act applies earlier in construction although it may apply even during the construction activity.
COSHH insures any chemical used on the construction as the site manager assesses their risk on human health before they are used. Therefore, this legislation recommends conducting risk assessment in order to determine the important precautions to be undertaken so as to avoid or minimise the exposure and regularly do medical tests to assess the degree of exposure. Hence, this act applies prior to construction as the site manager has to find out the presence of hazardous product which needs to be assessed or detached. Moreover, the act is applicable even during the construction following the fact that some of the equipment brought to the construction site during that period may be harmful and requires a risk assessment done before their use.
On the other hand, superstructures legislations comprises of building regulations, Construction and Design Management (CDM) regulation 2008 and Reporting for Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations (RIDDOR) (Topliss 25-26). Firstly, building regulations enhances values for energy efficacy in buildings, features of a building construction procedure and the requirements of all individuals. As a result, the regulation is applicable before the erection due to need to put in place the recommended standards such as fire escapes as well as during the construction. Secondly, RIDDOR helps to avoid severe injuries and deaths occurring during the period of construction. The rule is applicable before the construction as the manager may require to establish and document necessary actions to be taken in cases of severe injuries or death. However, the rule may still apply because the site manager may write a report following an injury or for purposes of informing the HSE (Topliss 33).
Works Cited
Bayan, Gokul K. "Bi-Layer Footing Foundation System for Multistorey Building – Towards a New Conception and Practices." Research and Development (IJCSEIERD), vol. 3, no. 3, 2013, pp. 57-76.
Chattopadhyay, Bikash Chandra, and Joyanta Maity. Foundation Engineering. Phi Learning Pvt. Ltd., 2014.
Chudley, Roy, and Roger Greeno. Building Construction Handbook. Routledge, 2013
Harris, Frank, and Ronald McCaffer. Modern Construction Management. John Wiley " Sons, 2013.
Jahan, Ali, Kevin L. Edwards, and Marjan Bahraminasab. Multi-criteria Decision Analysis for Supporting the Selection of Engineering Materials in Product Design. Butterworth-Heinemann, 2016.
Taylor, Geoffrey D. Materials in Construction: An Introduction. Routledge, 2013.
Topliss, Simon. BTEC National Construction, Building Services Engineering and Civil Engineering Student Book. Pearson Education Ltd, 2007.
