Physics Assignment

By German chemist Otto Hahn in 1939, nuclear fission was first recognized. Atoms of heavy elements divide into two or more pieces during this process. The total mass of the components that are created as a result of this process is typically lower than the mass of the originating atom. Energy released during the process makes up the remaining mass. Although this discovery had many benefits, it also had several disadvantages, which are addressed below.
The procedure offers an alternate energy source. The energy demand is constantly increasing world over. The process of nuclear fission has been found to produce a high amount of energy (Dobson et al., 2008). This process can be used to generate nuclear power.

Nuclear fission will help in reduction of global warming. Nuclear energy produced from this process is usually clean energy that has little adverse effects on the environment and can help alleviate global warming.

Negative Aspects of the Knowledge of Splitting of Atoms

Nuclear fission will lead to harmful exposure of employees working on nuclear plants to radiation. Radioactive substances such as uranium are highly unstable, harmful, and may cause diseases such as cancer.

Nuclear fission has also facilitated the creation of nuclear bombs, which have caused disastrous effects to the society.

Finally, the ncrease in radioactive waste is harmful to the environment. If it is not properly disposed of, it may lead to nuclear pollution and thus have detrimental effects towards nature and harm vegetation, animals, and even human beings.

How Do Chemists Classify Matter? Why Do They Do It This Way?

Chemists classify matter according to its composition. These classifications are elements, compounds, and mixtures (Feynman, 2015). An element is a substance that is pure and composed of atoms which have an equal number of protons and electrons. Examples of elements include carbon, iron, zinc, and potassium.

A compound is a composition of more than one element bound together by various chemical bonds. For instance, water is a compound that is formed from the combination of oxygen and hydrogen elements through a chemical reaction. The various elements forming a compound cannot be separated by physical means to individual components.

A mixture, on the other hand, is composed of more than one element or compounds mixed without any chemical bonds. Mixtures can be separated by physical means. An example of a mixture is water and salt (sodium chloride). When these two compounds mix, they are not combined by chemical bonds. Use of physical means can also separate them. When water is heated, it evaporates and leaves sodium chloride behind.

Chemists go beyond the classification of matter into its various states of solid, liquid, and gas. Matter can exist in any of the three states depending on physical conditions such as temperature and pressure. This classification means that the states of matter are not sufficient to describe the broad range of matter that exists in the universe.

Chemical classification enables a closer scrutiny to the various components of matter which is the foundation of many discoveries in the field of chemistry. The chemical classification has also helped identify substances that could potentially harm human beings. Therefore, the chemical classification is in-depth and more detailed.

What Are the Most Common Elements in Our Environment and How Do We Use or Misuse Them?

The elements in the environment play a critical role in supporting life in the natural environment. They are also useful for various commercial activities. The common elements in the environment include oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbon. All these elements are essential and perform different functions in nature. Similarly, these elements can be abused and bring harm to life as well (Manolis, 2011).

Oxygen supports the life of all living things. Besides, oxygen has several commercial uses. It is used to manufacture a broad range of chemicals such as hydrogen peroxide and nitric acid. It also makes polyester and PVC. Other uses include the treatment of sewage, welding, among others.

Carbon is one of the commonly used elements in human activities. Coal, which is an impure form of carbon, is used for metal smelting. Graphite is an allotrope of carbon and is used in making pencils and electric motors. Carbon also manufactures industrial diamonds which are used for drilling and cutting rocks. However, Carbon is a leading source of greenhouse gas emissions.

Hydrogen is a light gas that is used in hot air balloons. It is also effective in hardening of fats through the hydrogenation process. Hydrogen can serve as rocket fuel and be used for manufacturing bulbs or in welding. Hydrogen forms hydrocarbons, which are a leading source of greenhouse gas emissions. Another potential misuse of hydrogen is the production of hydrogen bombs which can bring harm to life.

Nitrogen similarly has several commercial uses. It is utilized in the manufacture of fertilizers, nylon, explosives, nitric acids and dyes. Nitrogen gas is also used in the refrigeration process in its liquid form. Nitrogen may be misused by forming nitrous oxides which are abused as a recreational drug.

4. What Are the Differences between Physical and Chemical Properties of an Object?

The properties of an object describe its characteristics. Physical and chemical classifications form the main categories of the attributes. Physical properties are measured without changing the chemical composition and include color, mass, volume, shape, melting point and boiling point. Chemical properties describe an objects ability to undergo a chemical change, including chemical stability, ph levels, reaction with other substances (Webster & Sell, 2007).

Physical properties are measured by tools such as rulers, thermometer, and weighing scale. Direct observation or touching can also identify some physical features of an object. These properties are further classified into intensive and extensive properties. Intensive properties remain constant regardless of the amount of matter and include color, conductivity, density, and luster. Extensive properties change depending on with the amount of matter.

Chemical properties are observed when a chemical reaction is performed on a particular object. Such properties cannot be ascertained through touching or observation observations. Identification of these characteristics enables scientists to know how to handle different objects. The characteristics also help in classification and determination of potential chemical reactions.

Examples of chemical properties include chemical stability, which helps in determining the appropriate way to store an object and ascertain potential effects the object has when it comes into contact with other matter. Toxicity is another chemical property that describes the harmfulness of an object if ingested by living organisms.

Flammability describes how easy or difficult an object can ignite when exposed to fire, helping to store objects safely and prevent human beings from potential harm. Reactivity with other chemicals is a property of equal importance as it helps in combining two or more elements to form other useful chemicals.



References

Dobson, K., Grace, D., & Lovett, D. (2008). Physics. London: Collins.

Feynman, R. (2015). The Feynman lectures on physics. New York: Basic Books.

Manolis, K. (2011). Matter. Minneapolis, MN: Bellwether Media.

Webster, M., & Sell, J. (2007). Laboratory experiments in the social sciences. Amsterdam: Academic Press/Elsevier.



























Biology Assignment

1. Thoroughly Explain the Theory of Segregation. Does It Occur during Mitosis or Meiosis?

Segregation theory explains how the gene variants are separated into the reproductive cells. The gene variants are known as alleles. The trait in the offspring does not always match with the traits in the parents' genes, which was discovered after crossing two heterozygous plants (Hawley, 2010). The pair of alleles carrying the traits in each parent separate from one another during the formation of gametes. Segregation process occurs during meiosis in the multi-cellular organisms. Meiosis is the process of formation of the reproductive cells called gametes.

The law of segregation states that each eukaryotic organism has a pair of alleles for a particular trait (Biggs, 2012). Each parent gives an allele to the offspring which result to a diploid. The alleles that contain traits that dominate make up the phenotype. That is the observable characteristics of an individual. Heterozygous alleles which are made up of one dominant and one recessive can produce traits that are identical to the homozygous dominant individuals. The copies of the genes split so that the gamete receives only one allele. Mendel proposed the theory after observing the offspring of the heterozygous pea plants express traits that are dominant.

Mendel's law of segregation focuses on the first division of meiosis. The homologous chromosomes of each gene are separated in the process to form daughter nuclei. The different alleles separate for a particular gene to ensure that each gamete acquires only one of the two alleles, which happens when the chromosomes segregate into different gametes in the first division of meiosis. The function of meiotic segregation is to produce sex cells.

2. Give Detailed Description of Genotype and Phenotype. Explain the Difference.

Genotype is a term that describes the set of genes that make up an organism. The various types of alleles and genes carried by an individual organism are termed together as genotype. It specifies all the instructions for the development of the cell and the functioning of the various cells in an organism. Therefore, genotype determines the characteristics, behavior, and appearance of a living thing. Two people can have the same genotype, but have different characters and behaviors, which explains the fact that observable characteristics of an individual are inherited in the environment in which they live. Thus, the genotype of a person is inherited through progeny in the process of reproduction.

Phenotype is the physical appearance of an organism. The functions, behavior and observable characteristic of an organism make up the phenotype. The genotype, environmental and epigenetic factors determine the phenotype of an organism (Vivion, 2011). In simple terms, phenotype expresses the genes carried by an organism when combined with environmental influence. Phenotypic polymorphism is the occurrence of more than one phenotype for a particular trait.

Differences

The genotype of an organism is inherited by the offspring from parents in the process of reproduction. The phenotype of an organism is not inherited. It is determined by natural selection and various environmental factors.

Genotype contains both the suppressed and expressed hereditary genes. Phenotype contains only the expressed genes that are physically observable.

Genotype carries the genes for eye color, hair color, and height among others. These genes are expressed phenotypically through variations of color, height among others. Therefore, genotype depends on genes while phenotype depends on genotype and the environment (Vivion, 2011).

3. Describe the Functions of DNA and RNA. What Are the Four Different Kinds of Nitrogen Containing Bases that Occur in the Nucleotides of DNA? Explain the Function of Each.

The primary function of the DNA is the preservation of all information for making the functional macromolecules of an organism. It also preserves the information for the making of DNA itself. The information is then accessed through the RNA copies. Various organelles have their own DNA like the mitochondria and chloroplast in addition to the obvious nucleus DNA (Erdmann, 2016).

RNA exhibits different forms and has many copies. The RNA molecules are divided into various types, which are transfer RNA, messenger RNA, and ribosomal RNA. The messenger RNA carries the message that is encoded in the gene to the locations of protein synthesis in the cell. The ribosomal RNA carries the ribosome. The transfer RNA carries the residue amino acids for protein synthesis process.

The four nitrogen bases in the nucleotides of the DNA are Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine(C), and Guanine (G). These bases form the twisted ladder in the nucleotide.

Adenine produces energy in the form of Adenosine Tri Phosphate (ATP) that aids in cellular respiration. It is one of the two nucleobases that help in the formation of nucleic acids. In DNA, it combines with Thymine to form a stable structure of the nucleic acid.

Thymine is paired with Adenine in the DNA strand to stabilize the nucleic acid structure, which is the main function of thymine. It is found exclusively in the DNA strand and replaced by uracil in RNA (Erdmann, 2016).

Cytosine can act as an enzyme co-factor when it exists as cytidine Tri Phosphate. It also helps in the transferring of the phosphate molecule to the Adenosine Di Phosphate (ADP) to make ATP.

Guanine acts as an energy carrier. It has three phosphates in its structure which make it better for the function (Hawley, 2010).

4. What is a Codon? What Is an Anticodon? Explain their Interaction.

A codon is found in the coding strand of a single stranded structure of a messenger RNA and the double stranded structure of the DNA. The codons are changed into proteins by the living things. Ribosome helps in the process of decoding the messenger RNA to form proteins. Therefore, ribosome can read the coding when written in three letter words called codons. There are three ways of interpreting the codons because they have three letters. Reading frame is the term used to describe the methods used in the interpretation of the codons. One series out of the three provides the viable protein (Biggs, 2012).

The anticodon is found on the transfer RNA. It is a loop containing three unpaired nucleotides in the transfer RNA. The anticodon in the transfer RNA fits into the codons of the messenger RNA. For instance, the codon, UUU responsible for amino acids will combine with the anticodon AAA. The anticodons are complementary to the codons. The main role of the anticodons it to bring out the correct form of amino acid regarding the instructions carried in the messenger RNA.

In the ribosome, base pairing is used to ensure that the correct information is transferred. The codons in the messenger RNA are matched with the correct anticodons in the transfer RNA. The transfer RNA has the protein string of the anticodon that corresponds to each codon of the messenger RNA (Hawley, 2010). When the codon and the anticodon match, the amino acid from transfer RNA combines with the proteins in the messenger RNA. After the complete transfer of the amino acids to the proteins, the transfer RNA goes back to pick another amino acid to a new messenger RNA. The process continues and results to successful protein synthesis.



References

Biggs, A. (2012). Biology. Columbus, Ohio: McGraw-Hill Education.

Erdmann, V. (2016). RNA and DNA Diagnostics. [Place of publication not identified]: SPRINGER INTERNATIONAL PU.

Hawley, R. (2010). The Human Genome. Academic Press.

Vivion, N. (2011). Biology. New York: McGraw-Hill.