Human evolution has been a notion that has caused some heated debate globally. Different philosophers, such as Charles Darwin and Herbert Spencer have contributed to the evolution aspect, by trying to explain various theories that outline the evolution of human beings. Charles Darwin was an influential British naturalist and geologist, who revolutionized biology with his theory of evolution through the natural selection (Veldhuis, Kjærgaard, " Maslin, 2014). On the other hand, Herbert Spencer was a major philosopher in biological and social evolution, making a significant influence in the fields of anthropology, sociology, and biology among others (Hossain " Mustari, 2012). The two philosophers made advancements in the theories of evolution. They relied on the direct inheritance of acquired relations to explain the human mental and moral development (Hossain " Mustari, 2012). However, the two philosophers had conflicting ideologies regarding the anthropological study.
According to Darwin’s work “The Origin of Species,” he presented his ideologies that species evolved from more primitive species through the process of natural selection, which occurs impulsively in nature (Veldhuis, 2014). He explained that not all individuals of a common species are the same; however, they tend to have some variations, which make their bearers more adapted to particular ecological conditions in the ecosystem (Veldhuis, 2014). Moreover, he pointed out that some species have higher chances of survival and reproducing offspring that are less adapted, with lower survival rate; hence, they become extinct with time (Veldhuis, 2014). Additionally, he explained that accumulation of adaptations to a particular ecosystem causes the development of separate species, each adapted to its ecological conditions (Waseda University, 2011). According to Veldhius (2011), Darwin’s theory involved three principles: variation, heredity, and struggle for existence. According to the variation principle, Darwin did not explain much about it, since it revolves on all forms of life. Through heredity, he alluded that the conservation force that transmits the organic structure from generation to another (Waseda University, 2011). Lastly, following the struggle for existence, he alluded that it determines the variations that will survive certain ecological conditions in an ecosystem, hence altering life through selective mortality rate (Waseda University, 2011). Subsequently, his theories demonstrated that the evolution of plants and animals showed no evidence of divine creation.
On the other hand, Spencer used metaphysics to prove some of his beliefs regarding evolution (Hossain " Mustari, 2012). He believed that acquired characteristics could be passed on to descendants. On the contrary, Spencer did not conceive that the acquired physiognomies were the ultimate principles of evolution as Darwin argued. However, he affirmed that the creation of a heterogeneous society is the fundamental principle in development (Hossain " Mustari, 2012). Additionally, Herbert alluded that human conduct can be learnt scientifically. From an evolutionary point of view, he claimed that human behaviors are socially determined (Hossain " Mustari, 2012). Spencer believed that increased distinctiveness oversaw the social evolution, with human societies evolving from a similar horde through the division of labor to complex development (Hossain " Mustari, 2012). He conceived that the primitive men were smaller, less intelligent and more emotionally relative to civilized men; however, they became intelligent by studying children in civilized societies (Hossain " Mustari, 2012).
Spencer’s work revolved around people and society, while Darwin’s work revolved around plants and animals. Moreover, Darwin’s work was biological, while Spencer tried to combine sociology and social philosophy (Asgariyazdi, 2017).
Question 2
Modern linguistics has contributed to the arrival of different viewpoints of language. Noam Chomsky became one of the most influential linguists in the twentieth century through his linguistics works, involving several philosophical doctrines (Barman, 2012). Following the philosopher works, new ideas and theories were introduced at a rapid rate, due to his status to reinvigorate and through his controversial methods (Barman, 2012). His main contribution to linguistic gyrates around the Transformational Generative Grammar founded in mentalist philosophy (Barman, 2012). His theory of universal grammar has intensified debates among many writers; however, his influence in linguistics cannot be discounted, since it has inspired many authors. Noam has influenced the psycholinguistics by claiming that it is possible for a human child to learn a particular language based on the linguistic family the kid is born; more so, the semantic is a part of the mental exercise (Barman, 2012). His theory becomes the development basis of analytic philosophy, which leverages language in the center of philosophical investigation (Barman, 2012).
On the other hand, he influenced the behaviorism, by arguing that the universal grammar tends to specify what is known by an individual. More so, through his theory of behaviorism, he claimed that the human brain is programmed to learn the language, henceforth, language is inborn, since the mind works when learning linguistics (Barman, 2012). As a result, the theory contributed immensely to the cognitive psychology.
Question 3
The discovery era of psychology was rapid and debatable through the entry of various individuals in the realm of new science. Some of the individuals had the intention of developing a new school of thought, while other times it was accidental, as they interacted with other fields of science (Green, 2010). During the inception, many scholars deliberated on what should be encompassed in psychology. However, in 1984, Lightner Witmer defined the applied psychology where aid could be given to children with disability (Thomas, 2009). Witmer’s intentions of applying psychology on individuals to improve in their academic (Thomas, 2009). He was noted helping a student who had verbal deafness, which revealed his clinical psychological orientation (Thomas, 2009).
Consequently, he gained interest in clinical psychology and devised a structured plan that could apply psychology to help others. He alluded that various psychological departments should have a close examination of the classes and grades of the students to conduct physical and mental tests (Thomas, 2009). Additionally, he stated that the departments should be equipped with specimens and apparatus used outside the facility for the defective students, henceforth, this contributed immensely to the field of special education (Thomas, 2009).
References
Asgariyazdi, A. (2017). Review and Critique on Herbert Spencer’s theory of Ethical Evolutionism according to Islam. Znakovi Vremena, 209-222.
Barman, B. (2012). The Linguistic Philosophy of Noam Chomsky. Philosophy and Progress, 104-122.
Green, C. D. (2010). Classics in the History of Psychology. Psychological Clinic, 1-9.
Hossain, D. M., " Mustari, S. (2012). A Critical Analysis of Herbert Spencer’s Theory of Evolution (English Version). Lumen Publishing House, 3(2), 55-66.
Thomas, H. (2009). Discovering Lightner Witmer: A Forgotten Hero of Psychology. Journal of Scientific Psychology, 3-13.
Veldhuis, D., Kjærgaard, P. C., " Maslin, M. A. (2014). Human Evolution: Theory and Progress. New York: Springer New York.
Waseda University. (2011). Darwin's Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection: A new theory of the origins of life. Waseda University, 1-31.
