Lev Vygotsky's Theory
Lev Vygotsky's theory assumes that the experiences of the individual and their linkages to experiences of others are essential factors in the learning process, creativity, and imagination. Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) applies the theories of active internalization, dialogic selves, and semiotics of behavior.
Active Internalization
Active internalization refers to the notion that learning occurs through the proactive imitation of the actions of an individual's peers.
Dialogic Selves
The concept of dialogic selves implies that learners are capable of authoring their behavior in relative to that of others.
Semiotics of Behavior
The idea of the semiotics of behavior suggests that transitivity of signals between the self and "the other" exists in interactions among individuals and affects the learning process.
Vygotsky hence defined the Zone of Proximal Development as "the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers" (Vygotstky, 1978, p. 86).
Implementation of ZPD
The ZPD theory hence assumes that the interaction among peers creates a favorable environment that helps the individual acquire practical skills and learning strategies (Vygotstky, 1978, p. 86).
Vygotsky, therefore, contends that teachers could empower students in the ZPD for a particular learning exercise by providing appropriate assistance.
Method of Scaffolding
Contemporary pedagogical practice has instituted Vygotsky's theory into the education curricula in the form of the method of scaffolding. "Scaffolding" refers to the instructional strategies that move learners sequentially towards the mastery of particular learning tasks to help them gain independence in the learning process (Radford et al., 2014).
Teachers could, for instance, conceal or delay the revelation of such elements of a learning task that are beyond the learner's comprehension at the onset of an instructional session. The delay allows the affected learner to focus their cognitive energy only on tasks which they can accomplish with their skill set at their disposal.
Only then can the instructor introduce more advanced tasks that require a higher skill set. Instructors may then offer assistance that complements the unique needs of learners experiencing challenges with new learning activities (Radford et al., 2014).
Application in the Classroom
Vygotsky's concept of Zone of Proximal Development is applicable in the classroom context which requires teachers to ensure the achievement of curricular objectives. It is indeed imperative that learners achieve the standard levels of competence before graduating to the next grade.
An appreciation of the implication of ZPD will enable the teacher to devise suitable instructional strategies that facilitate the accomplishment of the desired learning process.
Besides scaffolding, teachers could adopt the approach of cooperative learning which involves grouping learners with varying levels of competence to learn from their peers.
References
Radford, J., Bosanquet, P., Webster, R., Blatchford, P., " Rubie-Davies, C. (2014). Fostering learner independence through heuristic scaffolding: A valuable role for teaching assistants. International Journal of Educational Research, 63, 116-126.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Erikson’s Theory of Personal Development
The core tenet of the psychological theory is that the achievements and failures individuals experience in their early lives could potentially affect them in later developmental stages. Similarly, occurrences in later developmental stages also can either modify or transform earlier experiences (Syed and McLean, 2017). To that effect, Erickson’s developmental theory proceeds to outline some eight developmental stages during which cognitive, instinctual, physical and sexual changes conflate to create internal crises. Such crises are of particular importance because their resolution or lack thereof implies either growth or psychosocial regression, and the exhibition of certain types of virtues which Erikson construes as “internal strength” (Syed and McLean, 2017). In incremental order of developmental phases, these stages include: “trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and ego integrity vs. despair” (Syed and McLean, 2017).
The fourth stage - also termed the “stage of latency” – has significant implications on the learning process of the school-age child. Children attempt to gain competencies such as independence whose success and validation thereof by peers establishes positive self-esteem during this stage. If the child fails to develop skills required to function within society, they instead develop an inferiority complex (Sellman, 2017). An understanding of the dynamics of this stage is essential especially in the context of early childhood education practice. The early childhood educator hence ought to appreciate their role in furthering the development of the young learner’s self-esteem. In the classroom context, the educator may consider providing that each child with the necessary personalized attention to ensure the identification of developmental deficiencies that may curtail the learner’s desired development. Such precaution helps identify, for instance, children who require the educator’s intervention to improve their self-confidence as a means of ensuring they transition well to the next stage.
The fifth phase which is termed “identity versus role confusion” occurs during puberty. The adolescent searching for an identity develops goals, personal values, and an ethics system. The success of this stage is defined by the virtue of fidelity whereas failure usually exhibits in the form of an identity crisis or role confusion whereby the individual does not understand their role in society (Sellman, 2017). Such failure could precipitate the development of delinquent and other antisocial behaviors that are arguably one of the most common issues that affect the academic performance of adolescent students. Knowledge of the dynamics of the “identity versus confusion” stage could help educators design appropriate school counseling programs to help adolescents manage identity crises. The proposed program idealizes the facilitation of empowering learning environments that could assure the higher academic attainment in the classroom setup.
Sellman, D. (2017). Nursing as Caring. Handbook of the Philosophy of Medicine, 109-120.
Syed, M., " McLean, K. C. (2017). Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
Moral Development – Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development advances the Piaget’s theory of cognitive development which investigated how children construct their worldview. Rather than focus on intellectual development, Kohlberg examines the progressive development of a child’s system of morals of morals and ethics (Hwang, 2015). Kohlberg suggests that moral reasoning, the foundation of ethical conduct, matures through the pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional levels. Individuals at the “punishment and obedience” stage of the pre-conventional level obey authority figures because of the authority itself that the latter conveys. Children determine the perceived correctness or inappropriateness of action by evaluating the likelihood of punishment that may accompany such action. Children then transition to the “personal usefulness” stage in which rewards and self-interest determine the morality of an action. A child’s conceptualization of morality at the pre-conventional level, therefore, is a function of the negative consequences or positive rewards that are associated with particular conduct (Rutjens et al., 2013).
Individuals at the “conformance” stage of the conventional developmental level are most interested in the opinion of their peer group. The consequence of the individual’s preoccupation with externalized perceptions of themselves is that they model their system of morality around the values of care, trust, and loyalty to the group (Rutjens et al., 2013). Moral actions comprise such behavior that pleases others. The individual then enters the “law and order” stage during which they begin developing internal conceptualizations of the meaning of morality. The basis of evaluating the virtue of actions shifts to exhibit a consideration of law, duty, social order, and justice.
The person at the post-conventional developmental level evaluates morality from an abstract perspective rather than through the lens of society’s rules. They begin, during the “social contract” stage, to understand the reality that values and rules change from person to person and with time. Their developing rational competence helps them to appreciate the different hierarchical importance of laws. They then enter the “personal conscience” stage during which they judge moral decision on the basis of universal human rights. Personal conscience takes precedence over law whenever the two conflict (Rutjens et al., 2013).
Educators operating at the pre-school throughout the high school levels will readily appreciate the applicability of Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development to the classroom context. Education, besides instilling knowledge, also purposes to promote individual development by preparing learners to confront the real-world challenges that require an astute decision-making ability. Teachers will indeed acknowledge that Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development provides a framework upon which they could design ethics instructional session that the developmental stages of their students.
Hwang, K. K. (2015). Culture‐Inclusive Theories of Self and Social Interaction: The Approach of Multiple Philosophical Paradigms. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 45(1), 40-63.
Rutjens, B. T., van Harreveld, F., van der Pligt, J., Kreemers, L. M., " Noordewier, M. K. (2013). Steps, stages, and structure: Finding compensatory order in scientific theories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 142(2), 313.
Social and Emotional Development – Bowlby’s Ethological Theory of Attachment
Bowlby’s Ethological Theory of Attachment posits assumes that mental health behavioral issues are traceable to early childhood. The theory believes that children are biologically pre-programmed with the psychological need and ability to form bonds with others to improve their chances of survival. Attachment behaviors are consequently instinctive and are invoked in the presence of environmental conditions that could imperil the attainment of proximity to the person with whom the child forms an attachment. Such conditions include the threat of insecurity fear and separation from such person (Gross et al., 2017). The theory suggests in particular that fear, a child’s instinctive reaction to the presence of strangers, is an essential survival feature. The survival adaptation exhibits itself more pronouncedly as children tend to portray behavior termed as “social releasers’ in psychological discourse. According to Gross et al. (2017), social releasers comprise the set of behaviors that a child displays to ensure proximal contact with its parent or other attachment. Smiling, wailing, and the more apparent crawling are some of the social releasers that children use to make sure that they stay close to their attachment. Bowlby’s theory also suggests that the forces of evolutionary adaptation have also granted mothers a similar instinct to stay close to their mothers.
An investigation by Meins, Bureau, and Fernyhough (2018) on child attachment between infancy and preschool validates the conceptual foundations of Bowlby’s Ethological Theory of Attachment. The research demonstrates the extent of such devotion and its role during a child’s transition from the home environment to their first year in kindergarten. The study shows, for instance, that the early attachment between mother and child is so secure as to complicate the child’s transition into school. Children often cry and cling to their parents for fear of being left alone with strangers in their first days of preschool.
Bowlby’s theory and supporting evidence of the theory in operation has significant implications for early childhood education. Teachers should indeed consider the potential consequences that may arise from children or mothers being overly attached to one another. The excessive attachment between the parties may results, for example, in the child’s failure to gain confidence beyond the presence of the parent. The child may equally fail to embrace the new environment resulting in withdrawal symptoms that could eventually develop into social anxiety. It hence becomes imperative that early childhood educators collaborate with parents to help young learners transition from the home to the school environment. Instructors should consider discouraging parents from being overly protective of their children by elaborating on the proven consequences of excessive child-parent attachments.
Gross, J. T., Stern, J. A., Brett, B. E., " Cassidy, J. (2017). The multifaceted nature of prosocial behavior in children: Links with attachment theory and research. Social Development.
Meins, E., Bureau, J. F., " Fernyhough, C. (2018). Mother-child attachment from infancy to the preschool years: Predicting security and stability. Child development, 89(3), 1022-1038.
Individual Learner Differences and Learner and ADHD
Pedagogical discourse applies the term “learner differences” to delineate a spectrum of learners who can live independently but otherwise learn differently. The spectrum comprises individual with learning disabilities which, despite their gifted or average abilities and potential to succeed in the classroom, experience challenges in matching the expectations of achievement (Taanila et al., 2014). Such learners may have problems writing, reading, or calculating mathematical problems. They may also exhibit considerable when performing executive functions among other accomplishments in the classroom setting. Learner differences have significant implications in pedagogical practice because educators have to possess the requisite competence levels to identify individual learner differences and design appropriate instructional strategies (Blotnicky-Gallant et al., 2014).
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) - otherwise known as “Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive Type” of ADD (Attention-Deficit Disorder) - is one of the numerous learning disabilities that imply learning differences with the affected individuals (Taanila et al., 2014). The defining feature of the ADHD is that individuals who suffer from the condition are excessively hyperactive to the extent that they find it overly challenging to focus on tasks, social interaction, and everyday activities as well (Blotnicky-Gallant et al., 2014). Children with the condition may also demonstrate high levels of irritability that prevents them from sitting still. Such learners often talk incessantly, move excessively, or fidget when seated. Taanila et al. (2014) hence caution instructors that such behavior could have adverse effects on the learner process of the learner with the condition as well as their peers in the classroom environment.
Constant movement or other distracting activities by an individual indeed prevents all parties in the classroom setup from concentrating on the learning activities. Such may result in delayed instruction or ineffective learning. It is essential, therefore, that the teacher manages the unique learning needs of children who have ADHD in the general education classroom. (Blotnicky-Gallant et al., 2014), however, warn educators against the traditional compartmentalization practice which groups learner according to their particular learning needs and applies different instructional methods on that basis. The suggested alternative approach is to practice to avoid labeling learners as “disabled.” Blotnicky-Gallant et al. (2014) instead recommend that teachers strive to create inclusive learning inclusive environments and ideal instructional strategies that guarantee educational experience for all learners. Teachers could shift to educational models that maximize the strengths of learner’s differences rather than solving their weaknesses. Proven methods for dealing with the unique learner differences associated with ADHD include accommodations interventions. Accommodations pertain the set of strategies designed to make learning easier whereas interventions comprise the various tactics which teachers could use to limit the occurrence or inevitable effects of distractions (Blotnicky-Gallant et al., 2014).
Blotnicky-Gallant, P., Martin, C., McGonnell, M., " Corkum, P. (2015). Nova Scotia teachers’ ADHD knowledge, beliefs, and classroom management practices. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 30(1), 3-21.
Taanila, A., Ebeling, H., Tiihala, M., Kaakinen, M., Moilanen, I., Hurtig, T., " Yliherva, A. (2014). Association between childhood specific learning difficulties and school performance in adolescents with and without ADHD symptoms: a 16-year follow-up. Journal of attention disorders, 18(1), 61-72.
