1.1 Study Background
Barnard (2013, p. 12) argues that human interaction with graphic design is so ubiquitous that it often goes unacknowledged. The author notes that from the moment one wakes up, the interaction begins with simple acts, such as viewing text and symbols in one’s bathroom to reading nutritional information in tea and coffee packages. Further, it continues throughout one’s day as they board the bus, read newspapers or view advertisements along the sidewalk. However, Barnard (2013, p.21) argues that despite graphic design being widely available, a satisfactory definition is often elusive and hard to find.
Reviewing the etymology of the term facilitates its understanding. Barnard (2013, p.21) claims that graphic design is derived from two words: graphic, which has its roots from ‘graphein’, a Greek word which means mark-making; and design, derived from a French word, dessiner
and the Italian word disegno which means drawing, planning or designing. Consequently, a tentative definition of graphic design posits that it is a deliberate process involving planning and mark making.
The definition of graphic design has, however, evolved over time as different opinion leaders and researchers provide different conceptions. On the one hand, Kalman (1991, p.51) describes it as a medium and a communication means that entails the use of words and images on more or less everything, more or less everywhere. The author’s definition is argued to be broad and encompassing diverse applications ranging from engravings to publications. On the other hand, a different school of thought, by Hollis (2001, p.7) considers it to be a form of visual communication where marks are chosen or made and arranged on a surface, thereby conveying a given idea.
Cezzar (2017) reiterates the two authors by describing graphic design as a practice and art of planning and projecting both experiences and ideas through content that is of a visual and textual nature. The author further notes that it is also referred to as communication design and as such, can take either a virtual or physical form, target a limited or large number of people, and can be used for a range of purposes, from educational and commercial to political and cultural.
It is important to note that in order to understand the history of graphic design, adopting the definition by Hollis (2001, p.7) is significant. On the one hand, the definition posits that graphic design is a form of visual communication that facilitates the conveyance of ideas while on the other hand, it postulates that it relies on arranging marks that are either of a textual or visual nature on a surface. With the two aspects in mind, it becomes easier to historically examine how the influence of time has affected the conveyance of ideas using the media.
Graphic design dates back to early centuries and civilizations where it was used as a medium of communication (Meggs and Purvis 2016). The authors reveal that early mankind, dating as early as 15,000 – 10,000 BCE created paintings in caves using symbols and marks as a way of visual communication. However, the authors argue that as the prehistoric species became extinct and man became more civilized, the medium of communication consistently changed. For instance, Meggs, and Purvis (2016) affirm that early civilizations adopted the use of manuscripts for communication, made from diverse materials, such as papyrus, bark, or even clay. The authors reveal that dedicated artists would painstakingly etch visual representations on the different media using ink, with focus on typography being highly emphasized.
Over time, technological progress introduced diverse innovations, such as movable type and printing, thereby facilitating its further growth (Meggs and Purvis 2016). Such innovations are argued to have an impact on the work approach and the different ways and styles designers have been conveying ideas, especially with the advent of the computer. Cezzar (2017) states that in the current age, the sector has grown immensely to incorporate diverse fields, such as motion graphics, interactive design, web design, and film production among others. Such fields have significantly impacted how ideas are conveyed as different practitioners employ the differently.
Similarly, technological innovations have significantly impacted the work approach by different designers. Yong (2015) highlights several technological innovations that were highly used by traditional designers but have, however, been replaced by more efficient and effective modern tools. For instance, the author reveals that in layout design, while traditional designers heavily relied on T-squares to create vertical and horizontal lines, modern designers do not experience any burdens in using the tools as they are already inbuilt within computer applications such as Photoshop and Illustrator.
Additionally, with typography, traditional designers were forced to manually set type using a letterpress while modern designers easily change type at the click of a button (Yong, 2015). Further, the author asserts that illustration has also been improved significantly with graphic tablets, such as Wacom replacing traditional approaches that employed pencils, pens, and etching tools. However, even though the modern applications outperforming traditional tools, both approaches are important in facilitating the development of artwork in the current age.
The current study aims to examine the differences between traditional and modern graphic design approaches with particular focus on how the different designers in each period have used the medium to make effective and original work. It seeks to identify the different styles used by designers from the two periods in an effort to employ some of them in developing an illustrative cookbook. As such, the study argues that both traditional and modern graphic design styles are important in facilitating development of cookbooks, thereby employing them in developing a cookbook later in the dissertation.
1.2 Aim of the Study
The current study aims to review both traditional and modern graphic design approaches, thus identifying different styles used by designers in each approach. Consequently, it targets to assess the effectiveness of the different methods and adapt them to develop an illustrative cookbook to communicate with the audience.
1.3 Rationale of the Study
While modern design approaches have taken centre stage in the current decade, it is important to appreciate post modern traditional approaches that have over the years been seen to avail effective and timeless design work. Consequently, by examining work from the post modern and modern eras, important revelations on effective graphic design styles can be learned and adopted in modern design work. The study examines both modern and post modern design styles and identifies those that are effective in creating impactful artwork. Further, it adopts the identified styles and uses experimentation techniques to reveal their effectiveness in producing modern design work.
1.4 Significance of the Study
The study contributes to both practice and theory. With the former, it provides important insights that can be adopted by different art students while undertaking different art projects while with the latter, it provides important insights that advance current knowledge on modern and post modern graphic design.
1.5 Conclusion
The chapter introduced the background of the study, its primary objective, rationale and significance. In the section that follows, diverse literature sources are reviewed in order to elaborate on the topic of study.
Chapter 2: Contextual Review
2.1 Introduction
The current chapter reviews books, websites and journal articles to elaborate on the topic of study. It is divided into four subsections where the first details on traditional graphic design while the second elaborates on the evolution of graphic design. In the third subsection, influential graphic designers from the two periods are reviewed while the fourth section details on the historical development of cookbooks.
2.2 Traditional Graphic Design
Before the advent of the computer led to digital design, the traditional design studio was the only avenue artists and designers had at their disposal to create artwork. According to Novin (2013), the examination of design work at the time reveals two important aspects. First, most of the work was done by hand with the artists’ competence playing a huge role in determining the overall effectiveness of work produced. Second, traditional methods and media were used to create artwork. As a result, methods used included using brushes, clay, pens and pencils to create visual representations on surfaces.
Yong (2015) additionally highlights several tools that traditional designers relied on. First, design books and publications were reviewed as a source of inspiration, thereby facilitating learning on design approaches. The manual process, however, consumed a lot of time and required designers to carry heavy books in order to increase their inspiration levels. Consequently, such a process was argued to be inefficient based on the amount of work designers had to review before sufficient inspiration was earned. Barton (2013) adds that such materials provided designers with a dearth of information ranging from visual work, such as photography to the application of typography and color.
Second, the production of layout work was painstakingly time consuming as designers relied on pre-printed boards to create the layout for the different publications ranging from magazines to posters and flyers (Schneider, 2012). The author claims that once layout boards were mounted onto fixed drawing tables, the designers would use manual tools, such as T-squares to create grids that would facilitate production of the different publications. Additionally, designers were required to have a good eye to enable them to correctly layout work for production.
Third, typography work for a given publication was also seen to be a time consuming process that involved the use of letterpresses to manually set type. Yong (2015) reveals that type gauges were extensively used in the process which consumed a lot of time. As such, it was the preserve of craftsmen who were highly skilled in selecting and applying appropriate typeface. Spellmeyer (2011) adds that before the computer era, type designers focused on readability and as such, type would only be as beautiful as humans could make it. However, a challenge associated with it was that size could not be easily amended.
Fourth, designers were also limited in how the would apply different color schemes to artwork. Yong (2015) asserts that the only available solution was the use of pantone markers which were shipped in limited color swatches. As a result, the author uncovers that the vibrancy of colour schemes highly depended on the number of pantone markers that designers could afford. Additionally, the author notes that six color schemes were widely adopted, ranging from analogous, complementary and split complementary colors to triad, tetradic and monochrome color schemes. The different schemes provided a means of flexibility for designers in applying color to artwork.
Fifth, illustration was solely done using hands-on approach. Yong (2015) affirms that designers relied on diverse pens and tools, such as etching tools, pencils, pens, and fine liners to create visual artwork. Bilyana (2017) states that during the pre-computer era, illustration served as the avenue to express ideas without photography. As such, the author argues that illustrators had to ensure they provided highly realistic work for this purpose. Further, the author states that traditional design was associated with unique illustration techniques that have still maintained their relevance in the current decade.
First, was the technique of wood cutting where blocks of wood would be curved in order to create different visual representations. A second technique that borrowed from wood cutting was metal etching where visual representations would be created on metal. Third, pencil illustration, involved the use of pencils to sketch out different visual drawings in either monochromatic or coloured variants. Fourth, charcoal illustration was done using charcoal to create the different drawings. Other styles used included watercolour illustrations, pen and ink illustrations as well as acrylic and collage illustrations. In each of these, the difference in media used led to the different output realised.
Sixth, print production was also a manually challenging process. Smith (2016) affirms that before a publication, such as a newspaper could be printed, each letter of every word had to be first cast in molten lead, given time to cool and then slotted in place. The author argues that print presses employed compositors who arranged the type by hand before they could be typed onto paper. The process, however, reduced in complexity as different technological innovations furthered the process. Over time, mechanized presses were developed enabling printers to mechanically set type as opposed to previous technology that relied on compositors to manually set type to facilitate printing.
In summary, the review of traditional design, which existed pre-computer age, revealed that designers at the time required to have all round skills to be effective in their work. The review additionally revealed that most of the work was manual, requiring workers to have a keen eye and artistic capabilities to make effective work. Yong (2015) revealed that the different design processes ranging from layout and type design to illustration consumed a lot of time while at the same time requiring diverse skills on the part of the designer.
2.3 Evolution of Graphic Design
Moore (2010) aptly summarizes the transformation that has taken place in the graphic design industry in three key points. First, the author cites that mass audiences no longer consume media from one source, instead, we have a scenario where we have multiple audiences, multiple sources and multiple channels. Second, unlike the previous period where the requirement for large fortunes acted as a barrier of entry to the field, currently, all that is required is internet connection and a functional personal computer.
Third, the author claims that most of the graphics produced are designed with the internet in mind, thereby necessitating small file sizes that can be shared via email or downloaded from a website. Consequently, based on Moore’s argument, an important aspect that transformed the graphic design industry was the development of the computer. Yong (2015) argues that the introduction of the computer through digital art led to a significant improvement in the design and print processes.
Novin (2013) uncovers that following the adoption of computer aided design, designers would abandon the traditional design studio elements in favour of desktop applications, such as Photoshop and Illustrator which made their work much more efficient. The author further notes that a reason for the wide scale adoption was that digital media provided designers with faster capability and flexibility at their fingertips to undertake complex processes in minutes that would otherwise take hours to get done in traditional setups.
Yong (2015) describes the different ways technological innovation and computer aided design has transformed traditional graphic design. First, the author justifies that with internet provision, designers are now able to easily obtain inspiration for any project they embark on through browsing the internet. Over the years, portfolio websites have emerged that enable designers to showcase their work digitally. For instance, websites, such as Behance showcase diverse portfolios from different designers across the globe. Further, given that they are updated constantly, designers are provided with a lot of inspiration at their fingertips.
Secondly, Yong (2015) concludes that layout work is currently done effortlessly with the Adobe Creative Suite providing inbuilt tools that ease the process. For instance, the applications are shipped with rulers, guides, grids and smart layouts that facilitate the design process. Thirdly, the author proclaims that typography is no longer the preserve of craftsmen, instead, diverse fonts and typefaces are available at the click of a button. Traditionally, capabilities, such as changing fonts and resizing them would only be achieved through manual processes that were significantly tasking.
Fourth, colour schemes have also increased exponentially with computer aided design. Yong (2015) denotes that with modern design targeting both screen and print graphics, different schemes ranging from Red, Green, Blue (RGB), meant for screen graphics, and Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and Black (CMYK), meant for print graphics, have been developed. Through computer generation, the swatches resulting from the combination of the different colors have increased exponentially, providing endless options for designers.
Fifth, illustration has also improved significantly with the invention of graphic tablets, such as Wacom and graphic pens that provide immense capability to designers who lack hands on skills based on pen and paper. Bilyana (2017) asserts that digital illustration has been widely adopted since digital tablets are packed with nAuthorous tools that imitate traditional brushes, pens and pencils. Additionally, the tablets are synchronised with desktop applications, such as Photoshop, thereby facilitating the application of a diverse color schemes on artwork. Bilyana (2017) further uncovers that styles of illustration have steadily increased compared to traditional schemes. The author highlights styles ranging from concept art, comic novels, and editorial work to advertising, caricatures and packaging.
Finally, the introduction of computers in printing has facilitated the process further as computer users have all the roles of authors, editors, and compositors integrated together. Additionally, modern printers are high functional machines that print nAuthorous characters in minutes unlike traditional setups that printed limited characters at a time.
Modern graphic design is characterised by heavy reliance on the use of computers to facilitate the process. While the review of different sources revealed that digital design empowers designers with huge capabilities to redraft, recompose and scale artwork in a short period of time, it also revealed that traditional design is still relevant and plays a huge role in facilitating artistic creativity despite digital design being widely adopted.
2.4 Influential Graphic Designers
The review of traditional and modern graphic design literature revealed significant differences in the design process in the two periods. As such, this section reviews influential graphic designers from each period in order to identify important styles they used in their work and examine the effectiveness of the given styles. Given that the focus of the study is on layout design and cookbook development, influential designers assessed include Massimo Vignelli from the traditional period and David Carson from the modern period.
2.4.1 Traditional: Massimo Vignelli
Reynolds (2014) states that the artist, who died at the age of 83 years old, (1931-2014), was one of the most influential designers of the century. The artist, whose work covered a broad range of fields from advertising, packaging, and identity to interior and architectural design, employed unique styles that made his work effective. Reynolds (2014) identifies three key styles that made his work unique.
First, was the adoption of modernist principles to guide every design project that was to be undertaken. Important principles included design syntax, semantics and appropriateness which Vignelli believed guided the attainment of consistent design output. For instance, how the size of different type related to one another and how type related to grids and images from one page to another. The syntax principle implied that each design project used elements were most suitable the given project. Figure 2.1 below illustrates the New York subway that marked the introduction of information design.
Figure 2.1: New York Subway (Reynolds, 2014)
Second, was the style of timelessness and minimalism which guided Vignelli to produce work that would respond to people’s needs and wants over the course of many years, and work that was minimalist in nature, without unnecessary clutter. The American Airlines project serves as a suitable example of a timeless design. The brand has been maintained consistently over a period of 50 years without having any changes being implemented. Figure 2.2 below illustrates the American Airlines identity that adheres to a timelessness principle.
Figure 2.2: American Airlines Identity (Reynolds, 2014)
Third, Vignelli adopted typographic principles widely in his work. Reynolds (2014) reveals that the artist often relied on one typeface per project and would use different scale gradations of the same type to introduce hierarchy concept. The artist adopted simple grids, whitespace and simple typography to reveal the impeccable work design discipline would result in. Figure 2.3 illustrates the identity of Oppositions magazine, 1973-84 that focused on simplicity and typographic principles. Reynolds (2014) further notes that Vignelli adopted bold color schemes and horizontal rules to divide content.
Figure 2.3: Oppositions magazine identity (Reynolds, 2014)
In summary, Vignelli was argued to be a disciplined designer who embraced rules and principles to develop timeless concepts. His styles of minimalism, bold color, typography and modernism made his work effective leading to timeless design pieces that are still in wide use in the modern day.
2.4.2 Modern: David Carson
Michelle (2007) describes the artist as the godfather of grunge and dirty design. Carson, who was born in 1954 in Texas, started out as a high school teacher before undertaking graphic design at 26 years of age. The author adds that the popularity of the artist arose from the manner in which he absconded rules on typography and aesthetics. However, Michelle (2007) justifies that his unique work adopted several styles that were somewhat effective in the development of his work.
First, Carson was observed to manipulate type, often breaking rules on the appropriateness of grids and columns. Michelle (2007) affirms that the artist would distinctly decide on where to place type for any given layout leading to unique designs. Figure 2.4 below shows a sample of his work that had type running across the page.
Figure 2.4: Carson’s typographic work (Hawkes, 2014)
Hawkes (2014) additionally notes that the artist is adept to using hand drawn typography in making his work stand out. Figure 2.5 below illustrates a cover of a magazine where hand drawn type is a characteristic feature.
Figure 2.5: Hand drawn type by David Carson (Hawkes, 2014)
While one school of thought argues that Carson’s work was often illegible and filled with dirty graphics, a different school considered his approach unique. The artist pioneered the approach to break away from old patterns that had previously guided traditional design and layout.
2.5 Development of Cookbooks
According to Neuhaus (2012), cookbooks not only serve the role of manuals for creating different types of food using recipes with preparation direction, they as well serve nAuthorous roles. For instance, the author estimates that churches and communities are able to raise funds through the sale of such books while companies versed in kitchen-appliance manufacturing and food processing are able to promote their products through such books.
Additionally, health advocates are able to instruct their readers on the nutritional benefits of different kinds of food regimen while at the same time, traditionalists are able to preserve important ethic or family heritage. As such, the author argues that cookbooks ought to be viewed as books that serve a significant function in society, revealing information about the societies that produce them.
Neuhaus (2012) notes that even before the publication of the first American cookbook in 1796, instructional cooking texts were already in existence. The author cites that such texts were among the earliest texts to be printed, with examples, such as De Re Coquinaria and The Art of Cooking, dating back to the first century, and as such, being regarded as the oldest surviving cookbooks. However, the author highlights that these early cookbooks bore little resemblance to the current cookbooks existent at present day.
Neuhaus (2012) reveals three key differences between traditional cookbooks and modern cookbooks. First, professional chefs wrote them out by hand unlike present manuals that are authored by chefs of different capacities while at the same time, being printed and published. Second, they lacked detail as chefs wrote them out as suggestions that assumed wide and extensive cookery knowledge on the reader’s part. Third, the chefs did not intend them to be read by larger audiences, unlike current books that are sold commercially.
Notaker (2007, p.8) admits that the early published cookbooks reiterated a theme of cleanliness and hygiene given the filth and dirt associated with cooking at the time. Neuhaus (2012) announces that cooking during the early colonial settlements was a hard labour that necessitated activities, such as gathering, growing, and preserving food, fetching water and firewood to prepare food. As such, food preparation was not a nicety as the current technologies of today have made it. Additionally, traditional fireplaces were often crude with characteristic open fires and limited access to different ingredients, thereby requiring chefs to hone a variety of culinary skills.
Consequently, in order to appreciate the evolution of cookbooks, it is important to understand the settings around which they existed. Neuhaus (2012) argues that early civilizations had limited cooking niceties and less technologies at their disposal, therefore requiring chefs to hone diverse culinary skills in order to easily follow through the different instructional cookbooks.
Pang (2017) affirms that modern cookbooks have over the years grown in popularity following their practicality, prose, value, readability, and art. The author states that they are filled with photographs and use color masterfully in an effort to appeal to readers. Additionally, Pang (2017) reveals that most of the bestsellers are packed with exhaustive guides on new food preparation methods that inspire adventure among readers. For instance, in the review of The River Cottage Meat Book, the author argues that the cookbook offers nAuthorous approaches to cooking meat beyond roasting and braising. Additionally, the author reviews popular cookbooks such as Molto Italiano, which provide a dearth of easy to follow recipes from diverse Italian cuisines.
Figure 2.6: The river cottage meat cookbook (Pang, 2017)
The current improved technology and fast internet access has enabled e-books to be easily distributed leading to high sales of cookbooks. However, printed physical copies are being observed to generate higher sales revenues following the increased trend towards physical books (Furness, 2016). Furness (2016) reveals that hardcover printed physical copies provide an escape for people, thereby acting as a distraction from the noisy and technologically advancing world. Additionally, the Amazon website notes that the sales of cookbooks is on the rise following the observed increased trend towards printed books and the physical experience readers have with paper.
Pang (2017) asserts that the most popular cookbooks in the current century share similar features. For instance, they intensively use photography to present meals while at the same time, present instructions in an easy to follow manner. Additionally, based on their prose and practicality, they are observed to assume that readers do not have any present culinary knowledge. The author tells that he was able to follow a given recipe to prepare a meal when only aged eight years.
2.6 Conclusion
The section reviewed diverse sources to establish current knowledge on traditional and modern design as well as influential designers and the evolution of cookbook development. In the next section, the research methodology guiding the study is detailed.
Chapter 3: Methodology
3.1 Introduction
The chapter elaborates on the research methodology guiding the undertaking of the study. It is divided into three subsections where the first elaborates on practice based research approach while the second and third present case studies on the development of cookbooks.
3.2 Practice Based Research
The current study aims to develop an illustrative cookbook. As such, practice based research methodology is adopted where different cookbook layouts are assessed in order to guide the development of the cookbook. Dean and Smith (2009, p.3) describe practice based research as a methodology that uses practice to advance knowledge. The authors argue that the approach involves the invention of ideas and artefacts such as design in an attempt to generate new insights. Through the procedure, the current stock of knowledge is increased substantially and used in devising new applications.
In order to guide the cookbook development, two case studies that are observed to have significant impact on the projec
