1.0 Introduction
The paper reviews the past literature on the effects of mega cultural events across the world. A wide range of scholarly studies was analysed scrutinizing their methodologies and the findings. The planning of mega or large-scale cultural events demands expert management and pay special attention to political, social, and economic impacts. Huge investments and complex objectives as well as a multifaceted network of strategic effects and results characterize such events. According to past studies, mega cultural events can have both positive and negative effects.[1] Mega event refers to a large-scale cultural event, which draws world attention and is attended by huge numbers of people.[2]
2.0 Social Impacts
A wide range of scholars studied the social impacts of large cultural events. For instance, Kim et al. study attempted to assess the social effects of an extra sports event.[3] A similar study by Knudsen evaluated whether far-reaching cultural events could cause cultural scepticism. In particular, the research focused on residents’ perceptions, which play a major part in achieving support from the community during the event.[4] The study employed questionnaires aiming to record the attitudes and perceptions of the local citizens. The research by Knudsen utilized quasi-experimental design to collect data from communities living near or further from planned cultural activities and performances.[5]
Another research was conducted in Portugal by Herrero et al. evaluated the insights of locals towards holding Guimaraes 2012 European Capital of Culture (ECOC).[6]
Precisely, these studies presented the positive and negative social impacts of cultural events.
2.1 Negative Social Impacts
Cultural festivals can be a source of negative social feeling in the society. A study by Kim et al. pointed out that the local residents also worry about negative impacts, such as social conflicts, security risks (terrorism and crime), and traffic snarl-ups.[7] For this reason, understanding these impacts was essential in accomplishing support from the local community. Other literature, such as Knudsen (2011) examining the social impacts of these types of cultural festivals was reviewed. In fact, such cultural events normally cause negative effects on the surrounding communities. Therefore, it is important to introduce measures, which would mitigate negative effects, such as traffic snarl-ups, security risks, and social conflicts.
Precisely, residents living far away from the key centres of cultural and artistic activities often consider themselves left out by the marvellous events. Subsequently, the researchers noted that they tend to respond negatively and are less understanding.[8] For instance, the Stavanger 2008 cultural events were used to assess the cultural distrust of Norwegians in terms of acceptance of cultural diversity.[9] Therefore, persons residing far from the central point were sceptical of the events as compared to those residing close to the events. Additionally, individuals living farther from the core epicentres of cultural events demonstrated negative reactions towards inclusiveness of cultures. The change of attitudes towards certain culture can originate from renewing or strengthening latent or existing values instead of initiating fundamentally new concepts.[10] In this regard, it is pertinent to ensure that all people, including those who live far from the venue of the events participate.
2.2 Positive Social Impacts
Large cultural events can also be a source of positive effects in the community. Positive social impacts of hosting these kinds of events include benefits from entertainment and knowledge, sociocultural exchange, community development, and community pride. The research by Remoaldo, et al. noted that ECOC is a large-scale event, which is held every year, hence offers a good opportunity to engage and challenge local citizens, thus providing a sense of common citizenship.[11] For instance, researcher noted that some respondents thought that it was a podium for the recovery and valuation of traditions. Eventually, it was also expected to strengthen the self-esteem of the local community. Therefore, they became integral part of the community growth and development.
Another study by Kim et al. highlighted that the mega occasions were beneficial because they give patrimony after hosting.[12] More notably, they emphasized that the achievement of both the city and organization that host such occasions is dependent of the obligation of local dwellers towards it, the reliability of the visitors’ activities and attractions provided, and the ability to monitor and anticipate the preferences of the tourists.[13]
Moreover, mega events deliver a perfect platform to enhance the reorganization of the local urban space.
The research by Remoaldo et al. pointed out that most locals anticipated the 2012 ECOC to have more beneficial effects than adverse impacts. In fact, respondents identified more sociocultural advantages of the events. For instance, most opined that cultural events offered a chance to strengthen the image of the city and protected the built heritage as well as producing public resources in culture. [15]
Therefore, local communities enjoy a sense of identity when the cultural events are held in their cities or towns.
3.0 Economic Impacts
Different pieces of literature have examined the economic impacts of cultural events in areas they are hosted. The study by Gibson et al. examined the economic impacts of cultural events in different rural regions in Australia.[16]
It was a case study in Australia, which identified the additional positive economic impacts of cultural festivals. The research Gibson et al. appraised the records of 2,856 festivals in the country but the findings were generated from 480 fiesta organizers.[17]
A comprehensive comparison of participants in mega events is necessary to determine their perceived value. Herrero et al. study used valuation analysis to assess who pays more between the locals and tourists in large-scale cultural occasion.[18]
The research sought to evaluate the economic value ascribed by local people and tourists to a traditional music carnival in the symbolic Santiago de Compostela city in Spain.[19]
Mills and Rosentraub (2013) undertook a different strategy to analyse the economic effects of such events. However, Mills et al. (2013) research did not focus on the perspectives of visitors and hosts towards the economic development.[20]
The researchers revealed the positive and negative economic impacts.
3.1 Negative Economic Impacts
Cultural events are linked to a diverse range of negative economic impacts. For instance, researchers stated that it leads to loss of revenues due to displacement of tourists, increases inflation, and outsiders take most jobs. The study by Mills et al. indicated that mega cultural occasion is a source of economic development in cities they are hosted due to a heightened flow of wealth and tourism.[21]
However, the research pointed to the fact that most of the economic benefits associated with these types of events are usually overstated, especially in extremely integrated areas in case the city is providing the investments.[22] Therefore, the study sought to determine the net benefits of hosting such major events.
Many nations and cities compete to host large-scale occasions, such as Super Bowl, World Cup, or Olympics aiming to reap from anticipated monetary benefits that will follow. Nevertheless, Herrero et al. argued that most of these expectations are not attained due to critical errors, which contribute to over-estimations of financial profits touted or predicted by proponents.[23] For instance, mega events held in a city, which is an established tourist destination leads to negative financial impacts. The huge inflow of crowds in the city usually substitutes or displaces the tourists.[24]
Additionally, Gibson et al. reasoned that the existence of large-scale event might persuade some individuals not attracted to the occasion to move to other destinations in order to evade crowds and the expected inflation of food and rooms.[25]
Metropolitan areas, such as Paris, New York, Athens, and Chicago record millions of visitors per year even without mega occasions. If a large-scale cultural event were held in such cities, the net gain would be very small. Secondly, the souvenirs, food, and beverages sold in those events are imported from other countries, hence does not add any meaningful value to the locals economy.[26]
Moreover, these types of events generate the need for part-time labour, particularly in the construction sector. The short-term jobs force employees who reside outside the city to take a proportion of their income to their hometowns, which contribute to the development of other economies.[27]
Fourthly, Gibson et al. suggested that intra-regional exchange expenditure takes place. When a large-scale cultural event is planned, the total spending includes business made by persons who live in the neighbouring areas. Had those persons not taken part in the complementing activities or mega occasion, they would have utilized an equal amount of money for other kinds of resident entertainment. Consequently, those expenses do not generate new financial activity for a region that hosted the event.[28]
3.2 Positive Economic Impacts
The mega festivals are milestones to the economic development of an area because they increase attractiveness ratings to tourists, employment, entertainment, and profits. The study by Mills et al. assessed the economic value of large culture events when complementary activities are integrated. The study discovered that big cities are planning supplementary activities, such as tourist and cultural arena to widen the scope and boost attractiveness to tourists. Therefore, the researcher pointed to the fact that introduction of new or complementary increases the positive economic impacts accrued from such events. Such findings were consistent with the study by Herrero et al., which indicated that many tourists demonstrated higher willingness to pay (WTP) for unique products and activities in a cultural events. In this regard, the researcher submitted that organizers of these events should be innovative when delivering cultural activities. On the other hand, the study concluded that local population greatly appreciated and valued cultural products in their hometown as compared to tourists who view it as just usual holiday cost.[29]
Similarly Gibson et al. identified the economic benefits linked to large festivals. The researcher discovered that cultural festivals have a myriad of benefits because they produce cognitive value, entertainment, aesthetic enjoyment, economic value and value associated with symbolic repercussion.[30]
Therefore, it is essential to pay close attention to the cultural activities that produces many such benefits.
More importantly, Mills et al. used a different approach to assess the economic significance of arts and music in mega events. The empirical evidence stressed that art and music festivals offer economic value emanating from profits and employment accrued from such events.[31] They discovered that although these economic benefits appear small, the cumulative effects on nonmetropolitan areas are significant. In addition, they are robustly interlinked to nonmetropolitan society through participation, networks, volunteerism, and employment. They also offer a platform to promote, celebrate, and express their affection to event, place, or activity. Finally, they assist the community in bonding, especially at times of worsening macro-economic situation are specifically pronounced.[32]
4.0 Conclusion
Past studies have discovered that large-scale cultural events have myriad impacts on social and economic factors. Some of the beneficial social impacts of such occasions include community pride and development, cultural exchange, and knowledge acquisition. On the other hand, adverse social impacts include insecurity, such as terrorism and crime, availability of traffic jams, and social conflicts. They also provide economic advantages, such as employment and development of the region. However, economic benefits of mega festivals are overestimated owing to other determinants, which lead to negligible financial impacts.
The future study should focus on the impacts on the environmental effects in the cities and hosting grounds.
Bibliography
Gibson, Chris, Gordon Waitt, Jim Walmsley, and John Connell. "Cultural Festivals and Economic Development in Nonmetropolitan Australia". Journal of Planning Education and Research 29, no. 3 (2010): 280-293.
Herrero, Luis César, José Ángel Sanz, Ana Bedate, and María José Barrio. "Who Pays More for a Cultural Festival, Tourists or Locals? A Certainty Analysis of a Contingent Valuation Application". International Journal of Tourism Research 14, no. 5 (2012): 495-512.
Kim, Wonyoung, Ho Mun Jun, Matthew Walker, and Dan Drane. "Evaluating The Perceived Social Impacts of Hosting Large-Scale Sport Tourism Events: Scale Development and Validation". Tourism Management 48 (2015): 21-32. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2014.10.015.
Knudsen, Knud. "Can Large-Scale Cultural Events Lead to Cultural Scepticism?.". Nordisk Kulturpolitisk Tidsskrift 13, no. 01 (2011): 44-59.
Mills, Brian M., and Mark S. Rosentraub. "Hosting Mega-Events: A Guide to the Evaluation of Development Effects In Integrated Metropolitan Regions". Tourism Management 34 (2013): 238-246. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2012.03.011.
Remoaldo,, Paula, Cristina Almeida, J. Cadima Ribeiro, Mécia Mota, and Laurentina Vareiro. "Perceptions of Residents of Hosting the “Guimarães 2012 European Capital of Culture": An Ex-Ante Approach". Tourism And Hospitality International Journal (THIJ) 2, no. 2 (2014): 71-93.
[1]
Knud Knudsen, "Can Large-Scale Cultural Events Lead To Cultural Scepticism?.", Nordisk Kulturpolitisk Tidsskrift 13, no. 01 (2011): 44
[2]
Chris Gibson et al., "Cultural Festivals And Economic Development In Nonmetropolitan Australia", Journal Of Planning Education And Research 29, no. 3 (2010): 291
[3]
Wonyoung Kim et al., "Evaluating The Perceived Social Impacts Of Hosting Large-Scale Sport Tourism Events: Scale Development And Validation", Tourism Management 48 (2015): 21-32,
[4]
Knud Knudsen, "Can Large-Scale Cultural Events Lead To Cultural Scepticism?.", Nordisk Kulturpolitisk Tidsskrift 13, no. 01 (2011): 44
[5]
Ibid, 45
[6]
Paula Remoaldo, et al., "Perceptions Of Residents Of Hosting The “Guimarães 2012 European Capital Of Culture": An Ex-Ante Approach", Tourism And Hospitality International Journal (THIJ) 2, no. 2 (2014): 71-93.
[7]
Wonyoung Kim et al., "Evaluating The Perceived Social Impacts Of Hosting Large-Scale Sport Tourism Events: Scale Development And Validation", Tourism Management 48 (2015): 26
[8]
Knud Knudsen, "Can Large-Scale Cultural Events Lead To Cultural Scepticism?.", Nordisk Kulturpolitisk Tidsskrift 13, no. 01 (2011): 45
[9]
Paula Remoaldo, et al., "Perceptions Of Residents Of Hosting The “Guimarães 2012 European Capital Of Culture": An Ex-Ante Approach", Tourism And Hospitality International Journal (THIJ) 2, no. 2 (2014): 73
[10]
Knud Knudsen, "Can Large-Scale Cultural Events Lead To Cultural Scepticism?.", Nordisk Kulturpolitisk Tidsskrift 13, no. 01 (2011): 59
[11]
Paula Remoaldo, et al., "Perceptions Of Residents Of Hosting The “Guimarães 2012 European Capital Of Culture": An Ex-Ante Approach", Tourism And Hospitality International Journal (THIJ) 2, no. 2 (2014): 71-93.
[12]
Wonyoung Kim et al., "Evaluating The Perceived Social Impacts Of Hosting Large-Scale Sport Tourism Events: Scale Development And Validation", Tourism Management 48 (2015): 26
[13]
Knud Knudsen, "Can Large-Scale Cultural Events Lead To Cultural Scepticism?.", Nordisk Kulturpolitisk Tidsskrift 13, no. 01 (2011): 45
[14]
Wonyoung Kim et al., "Evaluating The Perceived Social Impacts Of Hosting Large-Scale Sport Tourism Events: Scale Development And Validation", Tourism Management 48 (2015): 27
[15]
Paula Remoaldo, et al., "Perceptions Of Residents Of Hosting The “Guimarães 2012 European Capital Of Culture": An Ex-Ante Approach", Tourism And Hospitality International Journal (THIJ) 2, no. 2 (2014): 73
[16]
Chris Gibson et al., "Cultural Festivals And Economic Development In Nonmetropolitan Australia", Journal Of Planning Education And Research 29, no. 3 (2010): 280-293.
[17]
Ibid, 290
[18]
Luis César, Herrero et al., "Who Pays More For A Cultural Festival, Tourists Or Locals? A Certainty Analysis Of A Contingent Valuation Application", International Journal Of Tourism Research 14, no. 5 (2012): 495.
[19]
Luis César, Herrero et al., "Who Pays More For A Cultural Festival, Tourists Or Locals? A Certainty Analysis Of A Contingent Valuation Application", International Journal Of Tourism Research 14, no. 5 (2012): 495-512.
[20]
Brian M. Mills and Mark S. Rosentraub, "Hosting Mega-Events: A Guide To The Evaluation Of Development Effects In Integrated Metropolitan Regions", Tourism Management 34 (2013): 238-246
[21]
Ibid, 340
[22]
Ibid, 240
[23]
Luis César, Herrero et al., "Who Pays More For A Cultural Festival, Tourists Or Locals? A Certainty Analysis Of A Contingent Valuation Application", International Journal Of Tourism Research 14, no. 5 (2012): 499
[24]
Ibid 500
[25]
Chris Gibson et al., "Cultural Festivals And Economic Development In Nonmetropolitan Australia", Journal Of Planning Education And Research 29, no. 3 (2010): 291
[26]
Brian M. Mills and Mark S. Rosentraub, "Hosting Mega-Events: A Guide To The Evaluation Of Development Effects In Integrated Metropolitan Regions", Tourism Management 34 (2013): 240
[27]
Luis César, Herrero et al., "Who Pays More For A Cultural Festival, Tourists Or Locals? A Certainty Analysis Of A Contingent Valuation Application", International Journal Of Tourism Research 14, no. 5 (2012): 501
[28]
Chris Gibson et al., "Cultural Festivals And Economic Development In Nonmetropolitan Australia", Journal Of Planning Education And Research 29, no. 3 (2010): 293
[29]
Luis César, Herrero et al., "Who Pays More For A Cultural Festival, Tourists Or Locals? A Certainty Analysis Of A Contingent Valuation Application", International Journal Of Tourism Research 14, no. 5 (2012): 503
[30]
Chris Gibson et al., "Cultural Festivals And Economic Development In Nonmetropolitan Australia", Journal Of Planning Education And Research 29, no. 3 (2010): 295
[31]
Brian M. Mills and Mark S. Rosentraub, "Hosting Mega-Events: A Guide To The Evaluation Of Development Effects In Integrated Metropolitan Regions", Tourism Management 34 (2013): 240
[32]
Chris Gibson et al., "Cultural Festivals And Economic Development In Nonmetropolitan Australia", Journal Of Planning Education And Research 29, no. 3 (2010): 295
