The chapter shall analyze different smart city approaches that are used for the modernization of four urban areas which are London, Barcelona, and Bangalore. London and Barcelona have developed economies, while India and Bangalore are developing economies, hence the results of the analysis are expected to be different in terms of the technology used, and the extent to which the adoption of the smart cities shall benefit the people. The results shall include financial figures that explain the amount of cash that every economy has so far used in the process of making the towns sustainable. An analysis of the figures shall then show the technical aspects that should be adopted for the improvement of other cities to the modern sustainable standards. Demographic factors are analyzed and presented in the report, to show how much they have affected the improvement of the urban centers to modern standards. Other parameters that are indicated in the results are the structures of the county councils and the roles that government bodies have plaid during the whole cycle of the development of smart cities. The chapter also analyses the roles of the community, education and the technological developments in the achievement of sustainable standards. Other considerations are the effect of both regional, national and international policies in the selection of the best methods for the achievement of sustainable cities.
Smart Cities Approach
Case Study 1: Barcelona
The organization and management of Barcelona Are based on the modern administration practices which involve the decentralization of administrative functions and the externalization of services, such that they can be easily accessed by the members of the public (Gasco 2016, p. 5). The decentralization of services ensures that the administrative offices are placed next to the places of residence of the citizens, hence they take less time to reach the point of service. Decentralization also reduces urban congestion since a controlled number of people enter the central business districts for the municipal of central government services. Another advantage is that the usage of transport infrastructure is reduced, hence they gain a higher life pan and the cost of repair goes down. Moreover, decentralization reduces graphic density, since a significant number of private car owners use different routes to reach their places of work or to access governmental offices. The government of Barcelona has also adopted strategic tools in management and the use of information communication technologies for the benefit of the public, and the general urban council economies.
The decentralization of services in Barcelona has been combined with the use of information communication technology (Gasco 2016, p. 6). Citizens do not have to the service centers but apply for their services online. Most of the payments systems are also done online, and the systems are set in such a way that after the citizens have paid for their services, confirmations are automatically done and the requested document is sent to the applicant through urban council websites, such application include police clearance certificates, national ID card renewals and the application for driving licenses. The city government of Barcelona also emphasizes on the use of the internet for the performance of administrative functions, and this is done to enhance speed and efficiency in the provision of services. The smart city strategy has received immense support from the political team and the local area administrators. The major of Barcelona takes a keen interest the transformation of the city into a smart city. The Urban Habitat area is a formulation of both the political and administrative bodies of Barcelona and has been of significant role in ensuring that the city is ever clean.
The Computer Municipal Institute is formulated to spur the application of information communication technology in the performance of administrative functions. The city council of Barcelona has formulated the Smart City Personal Management office to ensure that the digital framework is deficiently applied. The projects are implemented as parts of the plans to digitize Barcelona and convert into a smart city (Gasco 2016, p. 7). The aims of the projects are to transform the nature of works in the town, to transversal, from the former soiled works.
Barcelona has also restructured its government procedures and styles to match the modern requirements for efficiency and transparency. The businesses, universities, and locals have been involved in policymaking to ensure that every sector takes part in the conversion of the town to smart city (Kuyper 2016, p. 3). The incusing of the private sector in smart city policymaking has proved significant- a number of local smart city projects have been implemented in Barcelona through the contribution of the private institutions. The Catalonia autonomous government has ever been incorporation with the city council of Barcelona, and this has led to the implementation of massive development projects that not only benefit the county council of Barcelona, but also the other surrounding regions. Support from the European region and the collaboration with other cities have also helped in the realization of the smart city. The whole of the processes follows a top-down procedure, where the city government of Barcelona is at the center of the drive. Other parties have been playing a role in the development of the city, for example by the direct involvement in the activities, though the whole of the projects and designed and supervised by the city council of Barcelona.
The smart city project of Barcelona did not only concentrate on the development of the town as a single item but also on the expansion of other regions. The first phases of the development of Barcelona started within the central business district but with time, the improvements spread to the other neighboring towns, districts, neighborhoods and in some cases, to individual homesteads. For example, the adoption of information communication technology expanded from the known ‘Model of Barcelona’ to the other regions next to the city. Due to the expansion of the information communication technology project, a higher priority was given to the transformation of other urban centers and districts under project 22@ (Gasco 2016, p. 9).
The development of a smart city requires that the citizens and the community as a whole have to be smart, such that they can also participate in the building of the city. The people should be involved in the decision-making process, and they should have the right to suggest on want kind of an environment in which they would like to live. However, Barcelona hardly adopts the bottom-up decision-making procedures and this has led to the failures of few city projects. For instance, in 2010, a proper decision or design for the transformation of Diagonal Avenue to a larger capacity highway did not succeed due to the lack of public participation (Gasco 2016, p. 10). Therefore, some laws have been amended to allow for public participation in projects that directly affect their well–being. Citizens have been educated on the meaning and essence of smart cities, and therefore participate in forums for the transformation of Barcelona into a ‘smarter city’. In the laboratory fabrications project that was dabbed ‘Fab Atheneum- Ateneus de Fabrication’, a significant number of the citizens contributed to the adoption of the most economical and ergonomic way to implement the project. Local groups, universities and other social and corporative groups actively participated in idea generation due to the public participation, the laboratories’ construction project has been successful.
Barcelona is internationally recognized as an economically vibrant town – the city received an award for the 2014 European Capital of Innovation, due to the persistent efforts of the city to promote the use of technology in learning and constriction. Barcelona is also an active commercial center due to the presence of significant social amenities and activities such as the Barcelona Activa, which promotes entrepreneurship, and the massive Information Communication technology activities that are taking place at the 22@ (Gasco 2016, p. 10). The economic activities that take place in Barcelona are a show of a city which is typically gearing towards attain a state of a super smart city. The rollout of the digitization plan is majorly supported by Catalonia and the city council.
Barcelona has also shown a huge interest in the development of infrastructure, and in particular, the city government puts more emphasis on the development of the Information Communication technology sector (Kuyper 2016, p. 4). For instance, the Barcelona 2.0 framework was adopted immediately after the 2007gerenal elections, to ensure that there was a proper connection to Wi-Fi. In this project, the citizen can access the Wi-Fi systems at specific access points, and use the connections to get access to the city council services. The framework also provided a Wi-Fi for services which are ubiquitous. The projects around the 22@ plans are for the achievement of proper telecommunication systems, district energy efficient heating systems, pneumatic waste collection and distribution systems, and most importantly, the transversal projects such as urban platforms and the telecommunication sectors dominate the smart city concepts of Barcelona.
The smart city projects in Barcelona do not take into account the environmental aspect. The achievement of smart Barcelona only takes into consideration the quality of life but does not give any concern to the quality of the environment. The need for a smart city has paralyzed the environmental concern of the city, and the sustainability of the environment has been affected at a macro level. However, policies are developed to ensure that the achievement of smart Barcelona takes into consideration eco-efficiency, zero emissions, and self-sufficiency. Table 1 summarizes the smart city approach of Barcelona (Ribera 2015, p. 24).
Table 1: Barcelona’s Smart City Approach (Ribera 2015, p. 24)
Organization and management
A new approach to public management, tools of planning, priority placement and definitions, changes in the structure of the organization.
Economy
The competitiveness of the economy is governed by the city council.
Infrastructure (built)
Very crucial to the city council. The city council has for long been investing in technological infrastructure.
Communities and the people
The community hardly participates in the decision-making process. Most of the people are not aware of what a smart city is all about.
Governance
The leadership follows a top-down approach. The partnerships between public and private firms or public- public firms are highly encouraged
Natural Environment
The projects do not consider the environmental protection and conservation principles.
Technology
Core
Context of Policy
Smart city policies are within a larger Information Communication Technology Policies
Case Study 2: London
The city council of London reduces the levels of emission and congestions as a means to achieve a smart city. The city council involves other private organizations for campaigns for a green city (Center for Cities 2014). Innovate UK funds test projects that can reduce the levels of carbon emissions within the town. Due to the increase in the number of people who use the van as a means of transport, Agile Logistics designs and tests technologies that can help in the reduction of traffic congestions and the levels of carbon emissions. Most of the heavily congested shopping centers have also adopted the online shopping technologies, such that people can place orders for the goods of their choice and make online payments (Center for Cities 2014). Delivery of the goods is done with respect to the routes with the highest and most frequent order placements, and this reduces the overuse of roads and the emission of toxic fuel gases into the atmosphere.
Gnewt Cargo, a logistics company in London, has proposed for the use of electric cars in the delivery of parcels. Gnewt Cargo explains that the number of parcels that are delivered in a day, through the fossil fuel cars increase the levels of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere (Gann 2017, p. 19). The company, in liaison with the city council of London, is performing tests on the viability of the use of electric cars, not only for the delivery of parcels but also for human transport. The company is investing much in the use of information technology for route planning and the use of onboard software for the management of logistics activities. Gnewt Cargo has implemented the first phase of the use of 100% powered electric cars for the delivery of cargo within London. Between 2014and 2016, GLA and Gnewt Cargo have performed a number of tests for the use of electric cars. In all cases, the results were positive, and the use of green cars shall be adopted at a larger scale.
From the pilot runs performed on the use of small electric cars for parcel delivery, nitrogen compounds emissions reduced by 71%, the release of PM10 substances reduced by 87% while the emission of carbon substances reduced by 67%. The results also indicated a 57% reduction in the number of parcel delivery trips (Smith 2017).
The Major of London had made the improvement of air quality a top priority for the achievement of a zero carbon environment. Poor air quality is the principal cause of health problems within the city. The major has liaised with the environmental conservation ministry and the traffic police to ensure that vehicle that emits significant amounts of greenhouse gases are flushed out of the roads(Smith, 2017). The major has also directed the transport and logistics companies to reduce the number of large Lorries that use highways within London, especially during the busiest hours. The reduction of the number of huge Lorries at a given time ensures smooth traffic flow and a convenient movement of people within the city center.
The London city council is also working on a project for the use of smart lampposts. The lamp posts shall help in charging electric cars and also provide enough illumination to the city, at night or during the fogs (Smith 2017). The lamp posts shall provide geographical information of the city, through a digital display to ensure a convenient travel of people. The lamp posts shall be strategically placed with ample parking spaces, to relieve the other sections of the city from traffic congestions. The analysis of the vitality of the project and its implementation is a joint activity that includes other organizations and city councils such as Burgas, Milan, Lisbon, and Warsaw. The program also seeks to involve the support of intentional bodies, industries and other foreign cities on a commercial scale, affordable, integrated and smart solutions for the achievement of a green city.
The city council of London is adopting the use of smart heating technologies for the supply of heat to the community. The city management is working with Bunhill Energy Center to harness terrestrial radiation for the warming of swimming baths. The first project was completed in 2017, and from the impact auditing, the project had proved viable and can reduce the levels of electric/fossil fuel energy usage by 46% (Smith 2017). The team also devised the same method to reduce the extent to which the commercial electric heating systems reused within the homes.
London does not take emphasis on internet connectivity, and this has made one of the bottom 5 cities that have the lowest internet connection in the United Kingdom. Businesses that fully rely on internet connection are adversely affected by poor network coverage. The premises suffer from ‘digital deserts’ due to the lack of data fiber connections, and very weak 4G network coverage. A report generated in 2017 by the Regeneration Committee indicates that the Global Commercial Position of London is adversely affected by the poor network coverage (London Assembly 2018). The data indicated that London has a 4G coverage of 73.6%, which is almost the lowest in the whole of United Kingdom. Of the 63 cities in the United Kingdom, London is raked 30 in terms of high-speed network coverage (Woods 2016). Only 3% of all buildings in London are connected to pure fiber for 4G networks (Barber 2017).
The city council of London ace adopted the open access to data, as a strategy to enhance accountability and transparency in the undertaking of the commercial and administrative activities within the city (Singleton 2017). The inception of ‘London Datastore’ has promoted the involvement of members of the community in the management of the city. Due to the open access by college students and other literate members of the society, other apps have been developed to ensure a more efficient functioning of the London Datastore. The data stress is open to the community, and there is a digital contribution channel through which the people can submit their ideas for the improvement of the city. London Database has enhanced accountability and transparency within the city, hence the locals have more confidence in the administration. The data management system shall help in the identification of challenges that face the growth of London- the challenges shall be used as footprints for the identification of methods that are suitable for the improvement of the town, as stipulated in the Infrastructural Investment plan that was drafted by the major.
The management of London has adopted the policy of working with the private and public sector for the creation, maintenance and utilization of the database, such that a more interactive platform can be created for the generation of more ideas for the improvement of the database (Singleton 2017). The city council is also working with the European Union to create a universal platform that shall incorporate the ideas of the youths, for the creation of a database system that shall not only be used at the present times but also in future.
The city council of London launches the Challenge for Smart London Innovation, to bring together researchers, business people, citizens and entrepreneurs to create a pool of ideas that shall help in the development of the city into a world-class smart-city. The administration also encourages the international investment plans to bring in other ideas that may help in the development of the commercial and technological sector.
The administration of London has also formed the Smart London Innovation Network that is aimed at bringing together the existing and emerging smart city technologies and ideas (London Assembly 2018, p. 28). The network supports small market enterprises, colleges, organizations and members of the community, and this helps the stakeholders to grasp the available market opportunities for the improvement of the city.
The city council has adopted the use of smart grid technologies for the management of the supply of water and electricity. The smart grid technologies ensure that water and electricity are supplied at the highest efficiency, hence there are minimum cases of water shortage or interruption in electricity supply (Gann 2017, p. 11). London also applies technology and data in the search of a market for wastes, and any other method that can be used for waste management. Through the use of modern waste recycling methods, the town has been able to significantly reduce the impact of waste accumulation and improper disposal of trashes. During the development of the city’s infrastructure, 3-dimensional visualization techniques are used to identify the most efficient excavation levels to reduce the disruption of underground utilities (Maddox 2017). The 3D mapping techniques also prevent rod works that are unnecessary, to minimize the use of space and materials.
Case Study 3: Bangalore
India adopts the bottom up appr0ch in the achievement of the smart city objectives. The decisions of the people are considered more important. India invests more in the use of technology in the realization of smart Bangalore (Engasser 2014). Indian app developers designed Swachh Bharat app for the achievement of clean Bangalore, and India as a whole. The app is currently being used in over 4000 towns within India. The principal function of the app is to send videos and photos of filthy streets that need to be cleaned. The city council of Bangalore had a dope the use the app, and through public participation, several streets in Bangalore have attained the health safety index as required by the world health organization. However, the use of ‘Clean India’ app has gone down, and a survey conducted in 2014 revealed that users dropped from 12,000 to 5000 (Engasser 2014). The app encourages the participation of the public in urban management affairs, and in most instances, the top managers at the municipal council are always not aware the existence of filth along the streets. The app is also designed to allow for online discussion systems, hence the citizens have the privilege to vote on matters that concern city management.
The city management systems of Bangalore incorporates other private and public bodies in decision making and campaigns for a sustainable environment. Janaagraha (an organization), created a mobile app called IpadABribe.com to reduce the cases of corruption that have led to a serious decline in the performance of India’s economy. In 2012, India lost 364 billion euros to corruption and due to the far of another economic recess caused by corruption, the urban populations have embraced the use of IpadABribe.com. Through the application, the citizens are able to unanimously record and send cases of corruption to the relevant authorities. More than 47000 cases of corruption have been reported through the application. The application engages the citizens and empowers them- through their efforts, the municipal systems within India have stepped up in terms of democracy and public administration (Rayi 2017).
MOD institute in Bangalore allows the resident to come together, either online or offline, to formulate a vision for the improvement of Shanthi Nagar. The project is named ‘Next Bengaluru’ and uses technology to engage the residents in the planning of urban centers (Rayi 2017). Through the open discussion platforms, the organization is able to tap the diverse knowledge of the citizens and use their opinions to formulate proper policies and development plans for the town. The ideas collected by the MOD institute was forwarded to the city council of Bangalore for scrutiny and possible adoption.
Approaches by the Bangalore management to achieve a smart city also takes into account the economic aspect. Kumbhathon is an event organized and funded by Khandbahale Sunir, who is a successful entrepreneur in the town (IISc Conference 2015). The activity involved the brainstorming of entrepreneurial ideas and discussing the commercial challenges that are facing the town. The activity involves locals, students, business people, city officials, and innovators. The ideas generated are used for the upgrading of low capital businesses to high capital enterprises. The other principal aim of the activity is to generate ideas that can be adopted for the reduction of the number of refugees.
The government of India emphasizes on the adoption of projects that are not capital intensive. The government encourages the investment in public transport and sanitation, instead of the adoption of the internet in the cities. The municipal councils also encourage the investors in putting more emphasis on the developed small market enterprises, rather than invest in initial projects whose probability of failure is high. The government also supports entrepreneurs and grass root markets, especially those that are already under the umbrella of other organizations (Engasser 2014).
IBM, in collaboration with the chemistry of urban development in India, have adopted smart technologies for the management of water distribution systems and waste disposal mechanisms (Malhotra 2015). The technology can also be used for the detection of leaking piping systems, rectification and monitoring of the performance. IBM had also provided disaster management facilities for Bangalore city council such as fire detectors and firefighting equipment, and flood management equipment. Therefore it can be considered that the city council of Bangalore uses both preventive and reactive maintenance strategies to ensure that the operations of the town are not paralyzed at any instance (Malhotra 2015). IBM also encouraged for the decentralization of the management of Bangalore, such that the administrative functions can be done at different places and channel towards a central point, by the use of information communication technology.
The development of Bangalore, London, and Barcelona into smart cities, therefore, have the following similarities:
In both cities, there is the involvement of the public, though at different levels.
Other organizations and administrative systems are incorporated in the drive towards the smarter city.
The information communication technology is given the highest priority, as it is considered the backbone of cities’ development.
All the sustainable approaches are majorly towards the improvement of economic performance of the cities.
In both set-ups, the administrative systems are restructured for the attainment if sustainable management.
However, the difference between the approaches used in London and Barcelona, and those applied by the city government of Bangalore are;
In London and Barcelona, the top-down approach is used in the making of managerial decisions. The people (other citizens, students, and leaders at the lower scale), are only involved at the implementation stage, and this leads to unforeseen failures in the projects aimed at the attainment of a smart city.
Public empowerment is not a priority for the management of London and Barcelona, as opposed to Bangalore.
Bangalore puts more emphasis on the development of transport infrastructure and trade, while London and Barcelona emphases most on internet connectivity and the use of information communication technology.
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