Effects of global warming on human biology

Climate change and biodiversity have always been related. Ecosystems have altered over the course of Earth's history along with the climate and the emergence and extinction of species. The adjustments, however, took place gradually. Climate change has recently escalated in a way that has damaged ecosystems and species' capacity for adaptation, leading to a greater loss of biodiversity. By the end of this century, the rapid rise in global temperatures over the previous two to three decades may have increased the global mean temperature by 1.4-5.8°C (Linderholm HW 1), leading to more extreme and unpredictable range effects at the top end. The alteration would have an impact on how various ecosystems functioned as well as the biological wellbeing of organisms. The global warming and incessantly biodiversity loss will impact humans both positively and negatively. Although, researchers anticipate predominantly negative. Nevertheless, global climate change is now a serious concern as environmental health hazards faced by humankind. Therefore, this study attempts to identify evidence available from literature and official sites in order to assess the human perspective of global warming impact. The following evaluates the direct impact of global and regional change on the human population. Later sections deal with the indirect consequences of climate change on human health and finally, the study will identify the gaps in the knowledge projected. Overall, the purpose of this paper is to understand how global warming impacts human biologically.
Direct Impacts on Health
Impacts on human health will need to be assessed according to geography (with respect to environment and topography), and the vulnerability of the local population. Recently, increase in average temperatures due to climate change have been registered in several areas. This rise in average temperature may directly affect human health. Warmer average temperatures will lead to hotter days and long heat waves will be more frequent and intense (Wilby 33). Many associated health problems due to exposure to extreme heat waves for a long duration are anticipated such as heat-related cramps, syncope (fainting), exhaustion, and heatstroke. If conditions further worsen, exposure to chronic heat may cause heat acclimatization. Vulnerable groups like those with preexisting cardio-respiratory diseases (such as asthma), the elderly, the very young, the homeless, and the urban poor (Patz et al. 310-17) are more at risk. However, only fewer literatures are available to explain the causes of increased susceptibility within vulnerable populations.
Assessments of Health Impacts by Region
Temperature is linked with mortality and this relationship will vary by latitude and climatic zone (McMichael et al., Climate change and human health...861). Hotter regions will experience extreme temperatures which might impede the prevalence of vector-borne infections. Likewise, the seasonal winter-type peak death will decline due to milder winters in temperate regions. These health impacts are undoubtedly beneficial. However, residents of hotter cities are vulnerable to colder temperatures, while those living in colder cities are susceptible to extreme temperatures. The rate of death increase in hot weather, particularly elderly population is more at risk. Populations with obesity, diseases of heart and lung, and diabetes mellitus are more susceptible to illness and injuries due to extreme heat exposure (McMichael et al., Climate change and human health.. .861) because pre-existing clinical conditions weakens the body's ability to cope with the environmental changes (Cooper JK 55-58). Morbidity and mortality due to extreme heat are common in a population with outdoor occupation (Adelakun et al. 153-4). When Western Europe subjected to a major heat wave in 2003, the figure of excess deaths in England and Wales crossed 2000, 14800 excess deaths reported in France (Haines et al. p 588). Evidently, residents of urban center fall prey to heat waves because the temperature is comparatively higher than that of surrounding sub-urban and rural areas, so-called urban heat island affect. Air pollution concentrations may also rise during heat waves and may contribute to the raised death rates. Besides, frequent extreme heat waves will be exacerbated by increased humidity and urban air pollution.
Weather extremes such as floods, droughts, and storms have also been associated with fatalities. In 1996, flood in Biescas town of Spain claimed 86 lives (Haines et al. 588); 1 million left homeless, around 2000 injured and over 1300 died in the US from Hurricane Katrina (Haines et al. 589). Flooding may also cause reservoir contamination by mobilizing or re-mobilizing toxic chemicals like lead in water from a nearby source such as agricultural lands, posing potential health risks for river bank inhabitants (Albering et al.37-43). Post- flood generally follows epidemics of infectious diseases such as malaria, cholera, in both high- and low-income countries, due to increased transmission of vector- borne pathogens.
Reports across the world suggest that under El Nino cycle influences drought, causing nutrition, food and water supply and infectious diseases (McMichael et al., Health risks, present and future… 3). Temperate latitudes witnessing warm disproportionately are vulnerable to these impacts. As an e.g., large variation in rainfall frequent the countries along the Pacific and Indian oceans due to the El Niño/Southern Oscillation. Similarly, sub-Saharan Africa and sprawling cities are subjected to climate extremes due to urban heat island effect (McMichael et al., Health risks, present and future… 3). Furthermore, damages due to calamity are often associated with increased number of anxiety and depression in displaced population. Populations living in low-income countries are more susceptible to these impacts because they are located in high-risk zones (flood plains and coastal areas), public health infrastructure is limited, no insurance, and the dwindling local and national economies due to the substantial loss, as compared to their counterparts in industrialized countries.
Several research studies have been focused on the association between global climate change and overall occurrence and prevalence of the transmission of disease causing agents in particular sites (McMichael et al., Health risks, present and future… 2). As a fact, transmission rates increases non-linearly with respect to the transmission season and may vary in the geographical distribution. Strong evidence suggests the association of malaria epidemics in South Asia and South America, cholera in coastal Bangladesh, with El Nin˜o cycle (Kovats et al. 1486). This is due to a shift in climate alters vectorial capacity causing transmission decline in previously endemic areas, or rise in previously non-endemic areas meaning new populations are exposed that lack acquired immunity.
Indirect Impacts on Health
Air Quality Impacts
The upward trend in temperature and shifted weather patterns decreases air quality causes more often asthma attacks and other illness (Shea et al. 444-46). Hot weathers with elevated carbon dioxide levels also affect airborne allergens, such as more allergenic ragweed pollen will be produced several times more. Extreme events such as wildfires are anticipated to be more common and intense; producing smoke and other toxic air pollutants. Smoke caused due to frequent and intense wildfires due to climate change will carry particulate matter very long distances affecting people over a large area (Hänninen et al. 416). Older adults are at greater risks even though particle exposure is a short-time, increasing hospitalization and mortality. Other susceptible groups are outdoor workers like firefighters which have direct and long-term exposure to high level of pollutants (Hänninen et al. 414-22). Therefore, the range of adverse health effects is aggravated due to inhalation of fine particles, including acute and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer, and cardiovascular disease
The rising global temperatures from climate change will result in more days with high ground-level ozone. Devlin and co-workers (1997) showed that exposure to ground-level ozone for longer periods will potentially harm the lung tissue hampering lung functionality, and inflamed airways (8-17). As a result, asthma or chronic lung diseases will be exacerbating. In Auckland, New Zealand and several major other Australian cities, ozone and other photochemical oxidants are concerned as serious air pollutants (Woodward et al. 401-07). In Brisbane, Australia, the scenario has adverse implications such as increased hospital admission rates (Petroeschevsky et al. 37-52). The vulnerable population will include very young group, older adults, outdoor workers, and patients with pre-existing respiratory diseases.
The presence of ozone-depleting gases in the greenhouse gases along with troposheric warming exacerbates catalytic destruction of ozone (Shindell et al. 589-592, Kirk-Davidoff et al. 399-401) allowing more UVR infiltrate the troposphere. Besides, global warming compounded with depleting stratospheric ozone leading to increased UVR exposure. Moreover, ozone depletion process increases the photochemical smog formation, in the lower troposphere. Being a strong oxidant, the ozone component affects airway functionality, causing breathing irritation and respiratory allergies (Woodward et al. 401). The incidence (and mortality) of melanoma and skin cancer in a homogenous population has been associated with reflected amount of solar radiations reaching the Earth's surface (along a latitude). Many epidemiological studies have demonstrated solar radiation-induced melanoma and other types of skin cancer in humans (Gilchrest et al. 1341-48, McMichael, Stratospheric ozone depletion.. 159-80), particularly those population who reside in latitudes receiving high level of UVR (Whiteman 69-82) and those who have outdoor occupation (Glanz et al. 461-481). These studies illustrate a dose-dependent relationship UVR exposure and the onset of skin cancer. Laboratory studies, both in vivo and in vitro, demonstrate that exposure to UVB waveband of UVR damages retina, and induces lens opacification in various mammalian species (Wu et al. 464, Norval et al. 235), may be because UVR energized electrons generates free radicals. Although, the fact that UVR's role induces lens opacities in human populations is backed by mixed evidence. Direct exposure to high intensity UVR may cause "snow blindness", or acute damages which are a long term effect such as pterygium (Norval et al. 233-235). Nevertheless, UVB has potential role in the formation of cortical and sub-capsular cataracts formation has been demonstrated.
Immunosuppression in humans induced by UVR have been elucidated (Hanneman et al. 19-25). The cellular immunity is affected according to the different UVR doses. This biological attribute of UVR influences not only patterns of infectious disease but also the onset, prevalence and spread of various autoimmune diseases by weakening the TH1-mediated immune responses. From ecological perspective, UVR affects photosynthesis of terrestrial plants and phytoplanktons by impairing the molecular chemistry (Bancroft et al. 332-345). This will affect world food production marginally, and if continued, will create nutritional and health crisis in food insecure populations.
Prolonged and intense UVR exposure may alter the human host's immunity to infection (Selgrade et al. 332). Studies have reported a decline in host resistance to invading causal microorganisms of influenza, cytomegalovirus, malaria, Listeria monocytogenes and Trichinella spiralis in animals exposed to high UVR exposure (McMichael et al., Stratospheric ozone depletion.. 170). Literature provides evidence on the elevated level of severe herpes simplex lesions around the mouth (Ichihashi et al. 14-18). However, a positive immunosuppression effect due to low solar UVR exposure has been demonstrated in photoimmunology and epidemiology studies suggesting the advantage of this effect in autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA), multiple sclerosis (MS), and insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (Norval et al. 242). The findings of these epidemiological studies clearly assess the risk involved as well as other dire consequences on immune system due to increased UVR exposure.
Water Related Illness
Climate change causes ocean warming resulting in acidification and altered salinity of the water. Increased precipitation due to global warming, compromises the biochemical properties of water (Tirado et al. 1745). Alongside these direct effects of climate change on food quality and food borne diseases, climate change may affect other agriculture, crop production and plant health, and other food safety related occupations (Tirado et al. 1745-47). Heavy downpours and runoff contaminate drinking or recreational water leading to illness like diarrhea, diseases of liver, nervous and respiratory systems, or liver and kidney damage. Diarrhoeal disease shows strong seasonal variations (Kovats Tirado et al. 1746-48). Episodes of climate sensitive diarrhoea cases in Peru increased 8% per degree rise in temperature (Checkley et al., 442-50). Researchers have predicted a similar trend in Australia over the coming decade (Bambrick et al. 59). Poor sanitation infrastructure and prevalent infectious disease often worsen the situation further in USA, Brazil, Mozambique, Mexico, India, Taiwan, and Bangladesh, post-flooding episodes (Cairncross & Alvarinho 111-27, Hurtado-Díaz et al. S223-24, Huang et al. S125). These impacts indirectly have substantial consequences on public.
Food Production and Supply
The shift in weather pattern and climate change has a substantial impact on the food quantity and security. Initial models forecast mixed impact of the climate change on food security, although the impact is greater in developing (Rosenzweig and Martin 133-38, Fischer et al. 2067-83). The IPCC's Fourth Assessment Report (Canziani et al. np) estimated 20% rise in crop yields in east and southeast Asia, 30% decline in the yield in central and south Asia, and 50% drop in rain-fed agricultural output of some African countries by 2020. Although, reports suggest that populations living in low-income countries are more vulnerable, more impact-sensitive to food insecurity, dependent on local food production locally, and not so well equipped. Evidence show problems due to climate change in high-income countries, for e.g., drastic drop in agricultural productivity of southern Australia in near future (Stern np). However, assessment of such effect requires complex modeling, different for different regions across the productive land surface.
Vector-borne and Zoonosis Diseases
Altered transmission pattern of infectious diseases have been shown associated with climate change and variability (mostly influenced by El Niño cycle) demonstrating the disease processes are sensitive to change in climate. Global warming will have mixed net effect on vector- borne diseases depending on other intervening factors as elucidated by the work of Rogers and Randolph (350). Several empirical studies observed range shift of vectors and causative agents in response to temperature change. Warm weather may fasten the mosquito's development enabling the latter to reach greater population density (Gage et al. Table 1, 437). High precipitation and hot degrees caused an increase in malaria incidence in Kenya (Githeko and Ndegwa 54-63) and Madagascar (Bouma, Methodological problems… 133-39). Mosquito reproduction in Senegal and Niger declined (hence, low malaria incidence) due to reduced rainfall (Julvez et al. 101-04, Mouchet et al. 1735-36). Aedes mosquitoes population increased dramatically after heavy rains (influenced by El Niño Southern Oscillation events) (Anyamba et al. S133-40, Linthicum et al. 397-400). El Nino events were also associated with a surge in mosquito population and malarial incidence in South America (Barrera et al. 784-790; Bouma and Dye, Cycles of malaria. 1772- 74; Bouma et al., Predicting high‐risk years.. 1122-27) and South Africa (Mabaso et al. 326-30). However, given to the complex nature of the interactions of climate variables with the pathogen, vector, and host are complex, it is rather difficult to assess the potential influence of these diseases.
Conclusions and Gaps in Knowledge
Evidence from literature provide an important input in evaluating the extent to which global warming affects human health through complex causal pathways, making attribution difficult. Therefore, several uncertainties are involved in estimating future health trends. Secondly, most empirical studies on climate-health and prospect health risks from the climate change in future have been assessed in economically developed countries. Thirdly, studies related to the health impacts of global warming humans have focused largely on specific risks. This calls for investigations of a wider spectrum of health risks. Although many communities will temporarily adapt and buffer themselves against marginal effects of climate change, the capacity will vary according to demography, technological advances, governance, and economy. Moreover, research is needed to identify vulnerable groups and effective health management policies to combat the impacts of global warming in future.
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