Archaeological Field School

The Archaeological Field School at Weber State University focuses on historical events that occurred in the eastern Great Basin and Columbia Plateau. Dr. Brooke Arkushand's Weber State University students have been exploring various types of early rockshelters in the Skull Canyon drainage of eastern Idaho since 2012. Weber State University Archaeological Field School students investigated a native American site near Birch Creek, eastern Idaho, from June to July 2013.The team, composed of Professor Brooke Arkush and his students, worked to unearth the Cottontail Rockshelter, a prehistoric seasonal dwelling situated in a canyon on the eastern side of the Birch Creek Valley. Annually, students from the field school spend at least 21 days to excavate archaeological sites during the summer. During the past two years, excursions have also been made to study the Cottontail Rockshelter.

Because of the use of rockshelters or overhangs shaped through erosion and weathering by prehistoric humans, archaeologists were able to study remnants in order to determine the human’s prehistoric ways of life. The Cottontail rockshelter project focused on specific research topics such as site chronology, subsistence practices, seasonality, obsidian source variability and function. During field trips, skills were acquired on excavation techniques, classification of artifacts, identification of faunal remains, mapping and essential methods of surface survey.

This year, the archaeology laboratory consists of the last period of excavation work located at site 10-CL-23, Cottontail Rockshelter from 2014 to 2016. Cottontail Rockshelter is regarded as a seasonal Native American habitation site in Idaho’s Birch Creek Valley. It is a large, limestone overhang situated in the Dubois Ranger District of the Caribou-Targhee National Forest (Arkush 2017) at 10-CL-23). Robert Butler, head of the initial research, was one of the people who considered this as a unique site. The research served as a documentation for the presence of traditional deposits found at a maximum depth of 5 meters. The research also led to the discovery of various layers and sub-layers at depths of 2 meters dated between ca. 3645 B.C. and 1620 A.D. Some of the items found included tools made of stone and bone as well as ornaments.

Thus, this research aims to present significant information regarding prehistoric subsistence practices. It shall focus on recovered faunal remains from the Cottontail Rockshelter (at site 10-CL-23) which lies at a depth of 0 to 200 cm. Dr. Arkush of Weber State University conducted this field excavation in 2016 (Arkush 2017).

ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING

The environment of Idaho has a rich ecological variety. Idaho has a diverse geological landscape composed of mountains, hills, plains, and volcanic areas. Because of this, the climate varies throughout the state depending on the altitude and season (Hessburg and James 2003:279). During the prehistoric and historic periods, Idaho was home to large flocks of animals such as bison, pronghorn deer, bighorn sheep, foxes, coyotes, wolves, grizzly bears, rabbits and a variety of small rodents. Notable fish species during these particular periods were salmon and steelheads (Hessburg and James 2003:27). The presence of such organisms makes the state ideal for agriculture, forestry and imposed weather changes (Hessburg and James 2003:23).

The primary forest ecosystems of Idaho include Cedar-Hemlock Pine, Douglas Fir, Grand Fir Forest, Ponderosa and Spruce- Firforests (Daubenmire 1975:301, Sampson et al. 1994:5). Forests abound the northern portion of the region while sagebrush and desert shrublands conceal the southern part. A massive portion of the region is almost primeval and it also comprises a few of the largest sections in the United States (U.S.), which were previously deprived of paved roads (Sampson et al., 1994).

NATIVE FAUNA

Idaho forests comprise of several wildlife species such the bald eagle, pygmy shrews and hummingbirds. Endangered species also exist in the state as that of bears, wolves and Canadian lynxes.

Aside from reptiles and amphibians, there are birds that thrive as well in the forests such as common loons, harlequin ducks, black-backed woodpecker, flammulated owl and the Peregrine falcon. The region’s iconic mammals consist of Townsend bat, bog lemming, wolverine and the fisher.

Several faunal remains have been recovered at Cottontail Rockshelter from sites 10-CL-10 and 10-CL-13. Below is a compilation of the most significant animal taxa for the aborigines of eastern Idaho (Arkush 2017; Lehman Handout):

Birds

Ruffed grouse (Bonasaumbellus)

Blue grouse (Dendragapus obscurus)

Sage grouse (Centrocercusurophasinanus)

Black-billed magpie (Pica pica)

American Crow (Corbusbrachyrhynchos)

Long-eared owl (Asiootus)

Hawks

Ducks

Geese

Small and Medium Mammals

Pocket gopher (Thomomys sp.)

Wood rat (Neotoma sp.)

Jumping mouse (Zapus sp.)

Ground squirrel (Spermophilus sp.)

American pika (Ochotona princeps)

Marmot (Marmota sp.)

Cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus sp.)

Pygmy rabbit (Brachylagusidahoensis)

White-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus townsendii)

Striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis)

Porcupine (Erethizondorsatum)

Beaver (Castor canadensis)

American badger (Taxideataxus)

Fox (Vulpes sp.)

Weasel (Mustela sp.)

Bobcat (Lynx rufus)

Coyote (Canislatrans)

Wolf (Canis lupus)

Large Mammals

Mountain lion (FelisConcolor)

Black bear (Ursusamericanus)

Grizzly Bear (Ursusarctos)

Pronghorn antelope (Antilocapraamericana)

Bighorn sheep (Oviscanadensis)

Mule deer (Odocoileushemionus)

Elk (Cervuselaphus)

Bison (Bison bison)

Grizzly Bear (Ursusarctos ssp.)

The largest of the numerous varieties of animals in the state is the grizzly bear. It also has the longest migratory period among all other bears. Nevertheless, this bear species is threatened in continental US as well as in Idaho. In prehistoric times, there is sufficient evidence suggesting that grizzly bears have a high population due to the absence of deforestation during that period (Grub 2005:76).

Pronghorn (Antilocapraamericana)

The pronghorn was regarded as a prominent species in Idaho during the prehistoric times. Its distinctive features include white markings on its face and rear areas as well as medium-sized horns that are seasonally shed and broken off into thick prongs. The prong on its horns is uniquely different from the common white-tailed deer (Grub 2005:101).

Rabbit (Lagomorpha)

Rabbits are also considered as an important species in the Idaho ecosystem. Marauders such as badgers, coyotes, raptors, weasels, human, parasitic diseases as well as loss of habitat have caused the decline of the rabbit population in the past. At present, rabbits are considered a destructive species in Idaho. This is because of the decrease in the number of marauders due to extreme loss of their own habitats as well as a decrease in the commercial use of rabbits (CITATION).

The most common are the distinct Blacktail Jackrabbit (Lepus californicus), prevalent in the Snake River Plains and the Cottontail (Sylvilagus sp.), which is abundant throughout Idaho (Franzen 1981: 12). It has been a common notion that rabbits are rodents yet they belong to the order Lagomorpha. Despite the fact that they do not belong to the order Rodentia, they are considered close relatives of rodents.

The Pygmy rabbit (Brachylagusidahoensis) is a native species of Idaho that currently incurred an issue of anxiety from wildlife environmentalists since they are rare in the state. The pygmy rabbit is the smallest among all rabbit and hare species. It measures 9.5 to 11.5 inches in length and weighs less than one pound. They are characterized by a slate gray skin, short white ears and a small tail. The pygmy rabbit digs its own warrens and they are also herbivores which greatly depend on sagebrush as food (Reeder 2005:15). Bison (Bison bison)

The bison is a herbivore that eat simple food as that of sedge and grass, although they may eat any available shrubs. During winter, the bison feed on grass underneath snow. If the petite grass is not accessible, they feed on twigs from shrubs.

The bison normally rests during the daytime and graze every morning or evening. They are excellent browsers compared to livestock, as livestock are considered grazers. The wood bison can also be considered as an “oblige grazer”. On the other hand, the Wisent feed on shrubs and trees more often than the American bison has on grass and trees (Wilson 2005:33).

Bighorn sheep (Oviscanadensis)

This is a species of sheep named due to its big horns. Its horns weigh up to 30 pounds, while the mature ram weighs approximately 300 pounds. Their color ranges from light brown to gray and chocolate brown. The male sheep have big horn cores, engorged cornea and front sinus as well as interior skeletal septa. The adaptations protect the wits through its sucking action on the rattles. The bighorn sheep also contains periorbital glands in the frontal corner of their eyes, inguinal glands in the groin, and the pedal glands on their feet. Excretions from the glands can also upkeep their behavioral dominance (Ruckstuhl 1998:44).

NATIVE FLORA

Idaho is abundant in terms of its local flora which mainly support its ecosystem. Herbivore diets are composed of grass seeds, rush seeds, bark, twigs, fruits, flowers, sedge fruits, buds and leaves. There is a preference for lesser material such as stems, twigs, and branches up to 6.4 mm long. Leporids as well as cottontails, usually arecoprophagous, generate two types of fecal bits wherein one is eaten. The digestion of these fecal bits prominently upsurges the dietetic worth of nutritional items (Paradiso, John L. 1983:4).

Below is a list of local fauna in Eastern Idaho (based from the Lehman handout):

Trees

Limber pine (Pinusflexilis)

Douglas-fir (Pseudotsugamenziesii)

Curl-leaf mountain mahogany (Cercocarpusledifolius)Shrubs

Black sagebrush (Artemisia nova)

Low sagebrush (Artemisia arbuscular ssp. Arbuscular)

Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentate ssp. Wyomingensis)

Mountain big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentate ssp. vaseyana)

Yellow rabbitbrush(Chrysothamnusviscidiflorus)

Spineless horsebrush(Tetradymiacanescens)

Wax currant (Ribescereum)

Grasses

Bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneriaspicata)

Idaho fescue (Festucaidahoensis)

Sandberg bluegrass (Poasecunda)

Stipa comate (Hesperostipacomata)

Spike fescue (Leucopoakingii)

Prairie junegrass(Koeleriamacrantha)

Indian ricegrass(Achnatherumhymenoides)

Forbs

Tapertip onion (Allium acuminatum)

Prickly sandwort (Arenariacongesta)

Milkvetch (Astragalus spp.)

Bastard toadflax (Comandraumbellata)

Granite prickly phlax(Linanthuspungens)

Western stoneseed (Lithospermumruderale)

Pricklypear(Opuntiapolyacantha)

Spiny phlox (Phlox hoodii)

Mat rockspirea (Petrophytumcaespitosum)

Nothwesternindian paintbrush (Castillejaangustifolia)

Douglas-fir (Pseudotsugamenziesii)

The Douglas fir tree is the most prevalent forest type in Idaho. It is widespread throughout the western U.S. and Canada. It is identified through its compact, conical crown with dense side branches. Like all fir trees, the Douglas fir has contains needles and uses cones for reproduction. These needles vary but have an average of approximately 1.5 inches long that spread in all directions from the branch. The young bark is smooth and gray and as the fir matures, the bark darkens and becomes furrowed. The species is also known for its accelerated growth, which combats deforestation as well as wildfire losses. Mature fir trees average around 100 to 150 feet tall and 3 feet in diameter if given enough time and space to grow (Idaho Forest Products Commission 2017:2)

Indian Ricegrass (Achnatherumhymenoides)

The Indian ricegrass is a species of grass that is highly usable and nutritious to herbivores, birds and rodents. It is primarily collected for winter storage and this is the reason why it is now domestically grown for modern livestock. It also supported large mammals in the area and this allowed them to remain in the eastern Idaho region.

The Indian ricegrass is highly adaptive to sandy soils and is also adapted to endure the harsh climates of the state. It also thrives along with the Snake Rive wheatgrass (Roemer and Barkworth 2012:99).

LOCAL GEOLOGY

Eastern Idaho is home to the Snake River Plain that stretches to about 400 miles. It is a depression that has surrounded mountains and features three major volcanoes. Idaho is characterized by rocky and grass plains as well as prehistoric and historic volcanic activity that has shaped the land (Fig. 1). Because of this, the area is rich with basalt and obsidian (Kuntz et al. 1982: 3) and this area is where most of Idaho’s major cities are housed due to the agricultural availability of the land (Smith 1994). Idaho has a long history of human occupation. Nevertheless, the topography of Idaho has remained unaltered for thousands of years and the climate remains in flux.



Figure 1. Shows a topographic map of Eastern Idaho in relation to plateaus, plains and volcanic fields. Cottontail Rockshelter (10-CL-23) is shown in the top left corner of the overhang in the map as site 5N/6W. (Kuntz et al. 1982)



REGIONAL CLIMATE

The Colombia Plateau is an extensive stretch of sagebrush, concealed volcanic grasslands as well as valleys interspersed by secluded mountain ranges and rivers covering 301, 329 km2.. The plateau expands through the sagebrush plain of southern Idaho, connecting the Columbia Basin and Oregon to the northern Great Basin of Nevada, Utah and California. National depiction in the eco-region varies with Oregon occupying the largest percentage of the region at 32%, followed by Idaho. Altitudes range from near sea level at the western portion of the eco-region to above 3,000 meters on the uppermost mountain crests. It generally rains on a deteriorating slope from west to east through forest vegetation being sustained only at greater heights. There are alkaline deserts which obtain less than 15 centimeters of rain annually in rain shadows of mountain ranges. Considering geographic and environmental aspects, most of the eco-region has origins that date back to the Pleistocene period which happened millions of years ago (“Colombia-World Travel Guide” 2017).

REGIONAL PREHISTORIC SEQUENCE

Bison Rockshelter and Veratic Rockshelter are the most significant archaeological sites found within the Birch Creek area during the Paleoindian or Paleoarchaic period. The Veratic Rockshelter is generally situated in the North. These rockshelters were discovered during the course of the Birch Creak Archaeology Project that revealed 136 archaeology sites, as well as four circular rock arrangements, 77 Rockshelters, 1 “tipi ring”, and 54 campsites (Swanson & Bryan 1964). The geographical formation of the rock shelters was initiated through the erosion of Birch Creek as it streamed against the rock surface during the late Pleistocene period. These shelters were formed to their present-day sized through the method of insolation, hoarfrost, weathering and physical failure. Alluvial fan sediments partially occupied these rock shelters (Swanson 1972:2).

Earl H. Swanson Jr. was able to do projects aimed at examining his theories about the early history of the Shoshonean people located in the Northern Rocky Mountains. He speculated that the distribution of Shoshonean languages can possibly be explained as moving southward and westward out of the Rocky Mountains aside from the divergence from dialects of people living in the northern and eastern portions of the Great Basin (Butler 1981:51).

An archaeological proof exists regarding persistent human occupation in Bison and Veratic Rockshelters (Fig. 2) as early as 11,000 years ago (Butler 1981:10). Preliminary work in the valley region began with an archaeological survey in 1958. This led to the rock shelter excavations in the course of field periods from 1960 to 1961 (Swanson 1972:8).



Fig. 2 Shows Bison,Veratic, and Cottontail Rockshelters on a topographical map of Eastern Idaho in the Birch Creek Valley (Reid 2017).



ETHNOGRAPHY OF IDAHO

The contact period of aboriginal American communities of Idaho included the Sheep-eaters, Bannock, Lemhi, Nez Perce, inhabiting hunting fields in river valleys. Boise Shoshoen and the Bannack communities resided in the southern portion of Idaho and the early Anglos called them “Snakes” or “Diggers”. Nowadays, most of them lived in Fort Hall since the Anglos eliminated them in eastern Idaho.





Ancient archives disclosed that through the US government’s destruction of legal treaties, the Native Americans of this region never extinguished their ownership of the lands that sustained them for centuries (Butler, B. Robert 1981:22).

The Lemhi valley does not possess the high, rugged terrain and deep canyons that comprise other areas of Idaho. This makes it a favorable place for human occupation. Shoshone and some Bannock have established large villages along the Lemhi river. According to the reports of Lewis and Clark on the said area in 1806, the Native Americans seemed stable. The people were fed and organized under chieftains and through chiefdoms (Steward 1938: 187). The Shoshone and Bannock communities, who were known to be migratory hunters and gatherers stayed for a long duration of time in rockshelters, caverns, foothill regions, and close mountains as evidences from the sites have demonstrated. Native people travelled through long distances from other regions through the Boise Valley and the riverfront, searching for enough food, hot fountains (volcanically warmed water sources) and sacred lands. The sacred site called Table Rock, which was a ritual plateau with hot fountains on all areas, as well as the Castle Rock formation, was used as a resting place for their descendants. These lands once offered venues for meeting numerous tribes. Currently, this early history and its artifacts were exposed in non-traditional way – haphazard growth of the lands through European contact in the 19th century, have exposed valuable early artifacts that were never recorded and lost in the historical record (Victor 1890:1).

In 1863, Mormon settlers moved into the area and pushed what was left of the Natives out of their traditional homelands. This forced some settlers to retreat and live off government given rations. Some tribes like the Bannock and Shoshone continued to hunt, gather resources and live alongside the rivers for a long period of time. Almost everything ceased with the conclusion of the Fort Hall reservation. With the rising hostility of European and Mormon settlers, most Native Americans were forced onto the reservation. Their lives have been uprooted and their culture was virtually stopped. Moreover, it was even more dangerous to hunt and gather for themselves. There were still small bands of Native Americans who were fighting against the settlers while others fully submitted to their authority (Murphy & Murphy, 1986:44).

EARLY HISTORY

Idaho was among the last states to be thoroughly explored by the Europeans. It was known that Wilson Price in 1811 led the first European voyage to enter south Idaho and this steered Snake River while trying to find an all water path in the west from Missouri, up to Astoria in Oregon. During that period, Native Americans stayed in the area. (Victor,1890:32). The trading of fur caused a major and import intrusion of Europeans into the area. A. Henry of Missouri company of fur first went to the plateau of Snake River in 1810. He then constructed Fort Henry on the upper part of Snake River, close to current St. Anthony. Nonetheless, this initial American fur pole west of Rocky Mountains became deserted during spring (Victor,1890:172). Hudson Bay who owned the British company arrived in Idaho and regulated trade in Snake River by 1820s. Mackenzie was appointed the head of the newly formed North-West Company of Columbia in 1816, he had been hired by Hudson Bay and was also a colleague in Pacific Fur Company. He was being engaged in the early survey of Salmon and Clearwater Rivers. Mackenzie led the North-West Company and became a leading power in the trade of fur in Snake River country. Fort Nez, which was founded in July 1818, was the performance outlet for Mackenzie’s Snake groups. The 1818 to 1819 voyage was to the Blue Mountains, and toured down Snake River to Bear River they then loomed the headwaters of Snake. Mackenzie pursued to create a maneuverable way up Snake River starting Fort Nez to the Boise in the year 1819. Even though he succeeded in rowing in a boat from the Columbia River to the Grand Canyon which proceeds Hells Canyon, he settled that water conveyance was generally unreasonable(Victor,1890:77). Regardless of their unsurpassed efforts, the early American fur corporations in the region had trouble maintaining the long-distance supply lines from Missouri River into the intermountain. Nevertheless, Americans H. Ashley and Smith extended the St Louis fur trade to Idaho in the year1824.

The trapper's engagement at Pierre's Hole, organized at the base of Three Tetons in present Teton County in the year 1832, was followed by a battle amid Gros Ventre and an enormous troop of the American trappers helped by their friends from Nez Perce and Flathead.

The view of missionary vocation amongst Native Americans enticed early immigrants into the region. During 1809, the Kully Spell House was built. It was the first establishment owned by whites and the first trading post in Idaho. In 1836, Rev. Henry organized a Protestant delegation nearby Lapwai, there he published the first book of Northwest, founded Idaho's first school, industrialized its initial irrigation scheme, and cultivated the region’s first potatoes (Fisher, Vardis, Federal Writers' Project,1938:22.).

The Cataldo Mission, which is the oldest standing structure in Idaho, was built at Cataldo by Coeur d'Alene and Catholic activists. During 1842, Father Pierre, Fr. Nicholas and Br. Charles, picked a mission site along River St. Joe. In 1846 the mission was later relocated a small distance away since the initial location was laid open to flooding, Antonio Ravalli created a new mission structure in 1850 and Indians allied with efforts of the church constructed the mission, minus nails, they used the wattle and daub technique. With time, the mission was a vital stop for traders, immigrants, and mineworkers. The mission presented needed supplies and became a working harbor for boats proceeding up River Coeur d'Alene.

During this period, the area which later became Idaho was called Oregon Country, claimed by both United States and Great Britain. The United States got unquestionable dominion over the area in the Oregon Treaty that was enacted in 1846, even though the region lied in the authority of the Oregon government, as of the years 1843 to 1849. The initial boundaries of the Oregon territory in 1848 involved the three current Pacific Northwest states and the Continental Divide. During 1853, regions north of 46th Parallel turn out to be Washington Territory, dividing what is today Idaho into two. The prospect state was reunified in 1859 when Oregon came to be a state and the borders of the Washington Territory were drawn again(Cornelius James Brosnan,1918). Whereas thousands went via Idaho on the Oregon Trail throughout the California Gold Rush in 1849, a small number of persons settled there. The first of numerous gold rushes in Idaho started at Pierce in the county of Clearwater in 1860. By 1862, neighborhoods in both north and the south were formed nearby the mining boom (Pocatello, Idaho 1993:10).

FAUNAL REMAINS FROM UNIT 5N/6W

During the ethnographic period, the hunter-gatherer Shoshone groups of Eastern Idaho used animals as food and resource items. This included meat for food, fur for clothing and warmth, and bone could be used for food, weapons, tools and jewelry. Cottontail Shelter contained a well-preserved and diverse faunal assemblage, which provides evidence of ancient hunting and preparation techniques (Arkush 2017).

The site is abundant in large mammal, small mammal, and Artiodactyl remains. It is likely that most of the small mammal remains are naturally deposited from rodents. The most catalogued are intact pieces consisting of ulnas, radius, scapulae, mandibles, teeth, vertebrae, ribs and metapodials. A small number are likely to be food-related lagomorph remains. There were no small mammal remains found until the excavation reached a depth of 50-60 cm. They are very abundant between 60-70 cm and120-130 cm before they nearly disappear again. The entire assemblage from 10-CL-23 totals 6,184 remains. NISP values are shown below:



Types of Fracturing

Bison

Bison are known to be a high value food item for ancient humans as well as a formidable challenge to hunt. Through levels 0-40 cm there is no clear evidence of bison remains. In the 50-60 cm level the first identifiable bison bone emerges as a first phalanx (toe bone). In 60-70 cm, a rib was found, one level lower in 70-80 cm followed an astragalas. The most abundant level was at 80-90 cm which includes a long bone fragment, possible juvenile metapodial, third phalanx, second phalanx, and one large, intact tooth. The assemblage of bison remains at Cottontail Rockshelter 10-CL-23 consists of 9 confirmed bison remains in only 40 cm of sediments. Bighorn Sheep

Large Mammal

The large mammal faunal assemblage consists of 1,491 long and flat bone fragments from different stratigraphic levels. At the upper levels between 0-50 cm there are only 4 specimens. The first is a burnt long bone fragment followed by three others that are not burnt but, show evidence of spiral fracturing. After 50 cm the density grows with 13 being the lowest at 180-190 cm and 453 fragments at the 110-120 cm level.

74 bones in the assemblage consist of identifiable species or identifiable origin parts consisting of Bison and Big horn sheep. The origin parts include herbivore teeth, cranial fragments, scapula, phalanges, femur, ribs, radius, ulna, juvenile phalanges and an inner ear fragment. The rest of the assemblage is only identifiable as long bone and flat bone, some are burnt and have evidence of a few cut marks and rodent chewing interference. The rest are highly fragmented and most show spiral fractures which indicates human use.

Medium MammalIdentifiable medium mammal remains consisted of a single carnivore tooth found at 90-100 cm. This specimen could have been naturally deposited, it’s small size could indicate a fox or a young feline or canid species. Since it stands alone there isn’t much evidence to make a proper assessment but there is a rather large assemblage of medium to large mammal bone fragments (321) at the same level that could indicate decomposition since teeth are the strongest bone in the mammal body, it could have preserved better than the rest.

Medium to Large Mammal

Under the medium-large mammal remain category, there are 3,680 remains of long and flat bone fragments. This assemblage is highly fragmentary. This could indicate a high rate of human use of these animals or decomposition. In the assemblage there are 88 burnt fragments, 4 show clear cut marks, 1 juvenile specimen, 6 cranial fragments and some evidence of spiral fractures.

Lagomorph There are no clear and identifiable lagomorph bones found at this site, but many possibilities. Including a scapula, and pelvis fragment found between 90 and 120 cm. They are too large to be an average rodent, but a little too small to belong to a hare. Idaho has its own species of pygmy rabbit (Brachylagusidahoensis) that they could belong to, but they are not intact enough to identify with confidence. Since some of the small mammal remains are burnt (6) this would indicate that they are most likely Lagomorph, not rodent.

Rodent There is one identifiable rodent bone by species. Which is a proximal rodent ulna fragment found at level 170-180 cm. There are likely around 800 rodent bones from this site but, they are under the small mammal category since the exact species is unidentifiable. Most of these remains are likely to be natural deposits from burrowing. This is indicated by gnaw marks on larger bones and rodents natural behavior and habitats.

Small Mammal The small mammal assemblage is diverse and many of the bones are intact, but identifiable as to their species. Only three bones are found from level 0-50 cm. Which are a radius and two skull fragments. At the 50-60 cm level there are 15 specimens found, the highest being 221 at 110-120 cm and the next lowest being 3 and 150-160 cm.

It is highly likely that the majority of these bones are natural deposits considering the amount of gnaw marks on large mammal bones at the same levels and the small amount of burnt bones. These assemblages consist of; cranial fragments, mandibles, teeth, radius, ulna, vertebrae, humorous, one scapulae and unidentifiable fragments. There is one larger scapula that is most likely Lagomorph, but the rest are is a mixture of small rodents.

Small mammals could be used as food items but, there were not ideal since their small size could not feed one man for a day, let alone many. Although, in desperate or opportune times they would be utilized for food, fur, and sometimes ornaments.

Bird There are 47 bird bones in total mostly consisting of long bone fragments. There is no direct evidence of human interaction with the bird bones, as in none are burnt or show cut marks. It is likely that these remains were also naturally deposited to the site. The highest abundance is from level 80-90 (6) to 110-120 cm (13).

SUMMARY AND CONLUSION

Based on the values stated on the NISP values (Table 1) there is clear evidence of human occupation at Cottontail Shelter based on the faunal assemblage alone. Between 0-50 cm there were only 7 bones found. At a depth of 50-60 cm, the number increased to 34 and at 60-70 cm, it accelerated to 296 bones recovered. Those numbers remained steady and continued to increase with the most dense and diverse level being at 110-120 cm having 1,529 recoveries. Beyond this level, the numbers gradually decline with 170-180 cm being the last abundant level having 71 remnants found. At a depth of 180-190 cm, 13 remnants were discovered, and at 190-200 cm, it increased to 11 remnants.















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