This theory draws contributions from Albert Bandura. It puts emphasis on the importance of learning through observation. Children learn by observing the various ways people around them (models) behave (McLeod 1). Upon observing and making meaning of the behavior, children imitate the same behavior at a later time. Whether a child will continue to imitate the behavior depends on the response from the people surrounding it (2). Further, McLeod argues that prior to imitation, there is some thought on what has been observed from the models in a process called mediational (3). The mediational process comprises four processes involved in learning.
Attentional Process. This represents the extent of exposure to notice a behavior. On a daily basis, many behaviors are observed but most of them are insignificant with only those that attract the attention of the observer being imitated (McLeod 3). Because of the attentional deficiencies that limit young children’s observational learning capabilities, adults often change the behavior they model into that which they want to encourage as a way to promote observational learning (3).
Retention Process. This refers to an individual’s capability to remember noticed behavior vividly. For imitation to take place, the noticed behavior has to be remembered by forming a memory of the behavior that has to be performed by the observer at a later time (Tri Harinie et al. 4). Further, McLeod argues that retention is very critical in social learning because much of the learning is not instant; there has to be a memory to refer to when the behavior is being reproduced (3).
Reproduction. Refers to the ability of the observer to replicate the behavior demonstrated by the model. Although a great deal of behavior is observed daily, McLeod argued that it is not possible to imitate everything because individuals are limited by the physical abilities to reproduce the behavior (3). Consequently, it is possible for one to appreciate the skill demonstrated by the model but fail to imitate because of the effect of physical features on the decision to try and reproduce it or not.
Motivational Process. Refers to the will of an individual to perform the behavior. The reward and punishment that are related to the behavior are put under consideration and in cases where the perceived reward outweighs the costs, then the observer is most likely to reproduce the behavior (McLeod 4). If the reward to the model is not important enough to the observer, the observed behavior is likely not to be reproduced.
The Cognitive Priming Concept
This is a memory training technique. The training of the memory can be either positive or negative.
Positive Priming. Involves the use of a stimulus such as a word to help an individual to identify another word which is closely related, for instance, “blue” and “sky.” The effects of priming are as a result of spreading activation where an introduction of the first stimulus the areas of memory association are activated. Introduction of the second stimulus results in a speedy recognition because of the partial activation (Minton et al. 316). A study by Wexler et al. found that introduction of a “brain activation video game before a computerized math or reading curricular lead to improved performance” (3).
Negative Priming. Relates to slowing down of the memory by exposing an individual to a stimulus and eventually abandoning them entirely. Negative priming occurs when the presentation of a stimulus results to a slowing of performance the moment a similar stimulus is presented later (Stadler, and Hogan 87). Negative priming results from the time taken to resolve the conflict that exists when the stimulus disregarded by the brain is re-introduced.
Conceptual and Perceptual Priming. Conceptual priming involves a stimulus and a response that are conceptually related. Reliance is on the meaning of the stimulus for the brain to conceive words in the same category, for instance, “desk” and “chair” (Minton et al. 313). Perceptual priming involves stimuli that are similar in form. In this case, a stimulus of an incomplete picture can be completed with reference to a complete picture that was seen previously (313).
Kohlberg and Eisenberg Perspectives
Kohlberg uses a model that categorizes behavior and reasoning stages into three groups through which individuals move from childhood to principled level adulthood. Eisenberg does not classify reasoning and behavioral development into groups, however, she equally suggests a trend in moral development. She argues that children experience immature reasoning when faced with moral dilemmas because they are too difficult for their understanding. As the children get older, they exhibit more mature reason (Lane et al. 2)
Kohlberg’s theory suggests that an individual’s judgement whether to act positively or negatively when facing a moral dilemma is influenced by several factors. As one moves through the stages of development, the reasons for certain actions keep changing (Lane et al. 2). On the other hand, Eisenberg suggests that the emotional component of the moral behavior guides an individual’s actions, with the willingness to assist dominating.
According to Kohlberg, morality begins at childhood and the actions of an individual are guided by factors such as obeying rules to avoid punishment, how individual needs are satisfied, social expectations, concerns for the society, opinions and values of other people, and the ethical principles guiding moral reasoning (Lane et al. 2). Eisenberg gives emphasis on the emotional component of moral behavior. When faced with a moral dilemma, actions are guided by perspective taking and empathy (2). A child’s knowledge of anguish of others triggers anxiety for them and the emotional response is turned into an empathic concern.
Morality and Emotions
Children’s perceptions of morality relate to fairness and the well-being of others. These perceptions comprise of emotions and feelings that are linked to the experiences of emotions, harm, generosity, selfishness, and kindness among others. Moral wrongdoing in children is associated with anger, sadness, and fear. Positive moral actions are associated with happiness and a sense of satisfaction. These feelings are integrated into a child’s moral understanding.
According to Huebner et al., “perceived moral violations often evoke contempt, shame, anger or disgust” (1). Additionally, emotion in most cases results to moralization, and in most cases an applicable moral action is emotionally motivated. Generally, emotion mediates the moral judgement of an individual. In children, the emotional experiences have the potential of influencing their moral orientations.
Characteristics of the Types of Temperament
An easy child in general has a positive mood of mild to medium intensity, is able to establish regular routines quickly as an infant, adapts to new experiences with ease, mildly expresses frustration and distress, pleasantly takes new situations and people, and is generally cheerful (Conture et al. 6).
A difficult child tends to react negatively and cries often, has no particular pattern for the daily routine, adapts slowly and cries loudly at unfamiliar experiences, has irregular feeding and nap patterns, and expresses unpleasant mood (Conture et al. 6).
A slow to warm up child is shy, has discomfort with new experiences and adapts slowly, shows a low intensity of mood, shyness worsens if pressured to join a new group, has low activity levels, and may or may not be irregular in sleep (Conture et al. 6).
Works Cited
Conture, Edward G. et al. "Temperament, Speech and Language: An Overview". Journal of Communication Disorders, vol 46, no. 2, 2013, pp. 125-142. Elsevier BV, doi: 10.1016/j.jcomdis.2012.11.002. Accessed 23 Dec 2018.
Huebner, Bryce et al. "The Role of Emotion in Moral Psychology". Trends in Cognitive Sciences, vol 13, no. 1, 2009, pp. 1-6. Elsevier BV, doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2008.09.006. Accessed 23 Dec 2018.
Lane, Jonathan D. et al. "Theory of Mind and Emotion Understanding Predict Moral Development in Early Childhood". British Journal of Developmental Psychology, vol 28, no. 4, 2010, pp. 871-889. Wiley, doi:10.1348/026151009x483056.
McLeod, Saul. "Bandura: Social Learning Theory". Simplypsychology.Org, 2016, https://www.simplypsychology.org/simplypsychology.org-bandura.pdf. Accessed 23 Dec 2018.
Minton, Elizabeth A. et al. "A Theoretical Review of Consumer Priming: Prospective Theory, Retrospective Theory, And The Affective-Behavioral-Cognitive Model". Journal of Consumer Behaviour, vol 16, no. 4, 2016, pp. 309-321. Wiley, doi:10.1002/cb.1624. Accessed 23 Dec 2018.
Stadler, Michael A., and Mary E. Hogan. "Varieties of Positive and Negative Priming". Psychonomic Bulletin " Review, vol 3, no. 1, 1996, pp. 87-90. Springer Nature, doi:10.3758/bf03210745. Accessed 23 Dec 2018.
Tri Harinie, Luluk et al. "Study of The Bandura’s Social Cognitive Learning Theory for The Entrepreneurship Learning Process". Social Sciences, vol 6, no. 1, 2017, pp. 1-6. Science Publishing Group, doi:10.11648/j.ss.20170601.11. Accessed 23 Dec 2018.
Wexler, Bruce E et al. "Cognitive Priming and Cognitive Training: Immediate and Far Transfer to Academic Skills in Children". Scientific Reports, vol 6, no. 1, 2016, pp. 1-7. Springer Nature, doi:10.1038/srep32859. Accessed 23 Dec 2018.
