Learning is a complicated process that involves numerous aspects and strategies ranging from perception by senses, sending of information to the brain via sensory neurons and nerves, the encoding process, storage of memory and retrieval of long-term memories. Metacognition strategies and intrinsic motivation further enhance learning. For the process of learning to be productive and successful an individual need to have the ability to coordinate these essential processes of encoding, working memory capacity and efficient long-term memory retrieval as well as be able to utilize metacognition strategies. These are the key factors in influencing the academic excellence of an individual as they are vital in the learning of vocabulary, reading, comprehension, problem solving, critical thinking and application of knowledge and skills. This paper will analyze the roles of working memory, the encoding process, long-term memory retrieval, metacognition and intrinsic motivation in the learning process.
Key words: working memory capacity, encoding, metacognition, memory retrieval, intrinsic motivation.
Factors Influencing Learning
Working memory capacity
The working memory capacity is the ability of the brain to store information temporarily and manipulate it as well. This mental ability is essential in the process of learning because it helps people in holding a small amount of data in a state that is easy to access and then uses it in cognitive tasks that are complex. The interaction between the working memory and long-term memory is useful in planning, reasoning, problem-solving, writing, reading as well as in the abstracting the gist of the information. Working memory determines the academic performances for the early childhood learning in reading, vocabulary acquisition, comprehension, and mathematics.
According to the study by Cockcroft Kate, the measurement of the ability of the working memory taken at the beginning the academic life of a child is a better predictor of the success in mathematics, reading, and spelling as compared to short-term memory and IQ. The researcher further outlines that the working memory is made up of the visuospatial sketchpad and verbal or phonological loop subsystems that work together to store temporarily and manipulate information; the two subsystems have limited capacities (Cockcroft, 2015).
The verbal subsystem has a passive storage system for storing information temporarily and the articulatory system for maintenance of data and active rehearsal. "These processes are responsible for integrating auditory information into meaningful sounds, such as phonemes, words and sentences" (Cockcroft, 2015). Similarly, a visuospatial sketchpad comprises two subsections, the inner scribe responsible for rehearsal as well as a visual cache that stores static images. These processes are significant for the integration of the visual objects within our environment since without this process we would only view images that are disjointed. The domain-general is the third component, and it is responsible for the overseeing of visuospatial sketchpad as well as verbal subsystems. On the other hand, the fourth component is an episodic buffer, and it plays a role of holding "semantic information for short periods, binds phonological and visuospatial information, and integrates and consolidates information from long-term and immediate memory into coherent episodes" (Kalish et al., 2017). These components of working memory are crucial in the process of active learning.
Encoding process
The encoding process is where the information enters the memory of an individual from the sensory input. The process is the initial step in the development of new memories where the sense perceives something first and then sent to the brain for encoding into information that is memorable, manageable and in a format that can be accessed later for use. The process of encoding makes it possible for storing and retrieval of memories by the human brain. The brain uses chemicals and its language of electricity in the encoding the memory (O'Donnell et at., 1988). The neurotransmitter, a chemical messenger, is released at the synapses (point of connection between the nerve cells and other cells) and diffuses developing pathways and links across the space cells, and this is vital in the formation of memories.
According to the study by Luke Mastin, there are four different types of encoding, and each plays a different role in the encoding process. The acoustic is responsible for the encryption as well as processing of sounds and words. Visual encoding encodes the visual sensory information and images, tactile encoding encodes feelings and semantic encoding deals with sensory inputs with a specific meaning and helps one to remember personal experiences drawn from ideas, facts and concepts (Mastin, 2018). The process of encoding is biological that start with perceiving via the senses. The memories are laid down in a process that begins with attention and where the events to be remembered triggers the neurons to frequently fire, and this increases the possibility of encoding the information as a memory. In the research, it was found out that emotions increases the attention and hence the chance that strong memories will develop. The researcher argues that "encoding occurs on different levels, the first step being the formation of short-term memory from the ultra-short term sensory memory, followed by the conversion to long-term memory by process of memory consolidation" (Mastin, 2018). The brain relies on an acoustic encoding to encode the short-term memory and on semantic encoding to encode the long-term memories. The mnemonic techniques are used where the words and facts are associated with images, and this improves the encoding of memories. Mnemonics assist in the encoding of confusing information and therefore committing it to the memory; making it easier to remember. This process of encryption of data in the brain is essential in the process of learning.
Long-term memory retrieval
The process is also known as to recalling or remembering which involves accessing the memories that were encoded in the brain. In the process of memory retrieval, there is a review of the pattern of the activities by the neural that originated in the past in response to a specific event and this make the brain to perceive the real event finally. The process of remembering involves creative re-imagination because encoding and storing of memories include the scattering of memories in the different parts of the brains and they are linked together by neural networks and association of the event with information.
According to Luke Mastin, the process of recalling of the long-term memory needs the review of the nerve pathways that were formed by the brain during the process of encoding, and the rate of remembering relies on the strength of the paths. This process transforms the long-term memory into working or short-term memory for easy accessibility; because of this ability, long-term memory retrieval is essential in the learning process. One recalls everything as a result of direct memory retrieval (Mastin, 2018).
In the research by Ouyang and Thomas, the process of the memory retrieval involves recall and recognition. In recognition, one compares the available information with memory, for example in answering multiple choice questions or identification of a familiar face, and the process only needs a familiarity decision that is simple. Recall, on the other hand, is a process where one remembers object, fact or an event that is not physically present and needs retrieving information from memory such as answering questions involving filling in the blanks or requiring remembering the name of a familiar person. "Recall involves actively reconstructing the information and requires the activation of all the neurons involved in the memory in question, whereas recognition only requires a relatively simple decision as to whether one thing among others has been encountered before"( Ouyang " Thomas, 2005). Recognition is more effective than recalling since it uses one process as opposed to the later that uses two.
Metacognition
Metacognition is a critical component in the attaining the ability to solve problems. The process of metacognition improves how individuals apply skills and knowledge in situations that are beyond the circumstances in which learning happened. Metacognition is necessary for the transfer of knowledge across various disciplines and therefore useful for the learners to prepare for the real-life challenges where they will be required to apply their experiences effectively to solve such problems (Zepeda et al., 2015). Similarly, in cases where a specific skill or idea was taught with a single example, the learner must learn how to apply this knowledge to be able to excel in the exams and homework. "Transfer is the ultimate goal of all education, as students are expected to internalize what they learn in school and apply it to life" (Pintrich, 2002). The process is, therefore, a significant tool in general learning.
In the study by Hoe Lee and colleagues, it was noted that the knowledge of metacognitive in various strategies helps learners in learning more as well as bettering their performance. Also, the experience of metacognitive enhances the process of transfer of learning where one can use the knowledge acquired elsewhere in a different situation (Hoe et al., 2001). In cases where students confront tasks that require skills and knowledge, they have not learned in that discipline, the experience of Metacognition comes in handy, and those who have the ability produce excellent results as compared to their counterpart who cannot employ the general strategy of thinking.
Intrinsic motivation
The motivation framework is useful since it helps to understand the engagement of students in the learning setting. In the research by Shillingford and Karlin, the findings reveal that intrinsic motivation connects with higher levels of satisfaction, effort, and learning. Similarly, the researchers outlined three fundamental principles of intrinsic motivation which include, need for competence, autonomy as well as relatedness or meaning. The nature of the tasks, teacher's feedback and how the learning opportunity enhances independence has an impact on the students' academic skills development and their engagement in the tasks (Shillingford " Karlin, 2013). Competence has a link to the learners' need to feel successful, capable and effective when handling learning challenges. For this reason the feedback they get from their teachers greatly influences the rationale for their success and their theories regarding how intelligence works. Relatedness, on the other hand, is based on the belief that "learning experiences should be put into the contexts of a student's community, personal goals, interests, or connect to a larger body of knowledge, to be salient" (Hesek, 2004). Creating a productive relationship between the learners' school work, outside world and academic and personal objectives influence the students' engagement positively.
From the study, it is evident that intrinsic motivation enhances the relationship between creativity, openness to experience and self-efficacy. The study further found out that intrinsic motivation was connected to the decline in the stress scores perceived while learning. However, it has no relationship with academic achievement (Wulf " Lewthwaite, 2016). Giving learners the autonomy has been found to influence the process of learning in various ways. When students are allowed to take part in the process of learning, they will be motivated, and this will promote the use of strategies that are self-regulation and deep influence processing of vital information.
Conclusion
The ability for a student to excel in his or her academics is directly affected by working memory, the encoding process, retrieval of long-term memories, and metacognition. In the situation where all the factors are efficient, the students will be able to realize high performance in their academics. Intrinsic motivation also is vital in the learning process since it makes an individual to take a personal initiative of working hard towards achieving his or her goals without external pressure.
Work Cited
Kalish, M. L., Newell, B. R., " Dunn, J. C. (2017). More is generally better: Higher working memory capacity does not impair perceptual category learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, And Cognition, 43(4), 503-514.
O'Donnell, J. P., Radtke, R. C., Leicht, D. J., " Caesar, R. (1988). Encoding and retrieval processes in learning-disabled, head-injured, and nondisabled young adults. Journal of General Psychology, 115(4), 355-368.
Ouyang, M., " Thomas, S. A. (2005). A requirement for memory retrieval during and after long-term extinction learning. PNAS Proceedings of The National Academy of Sciences of The United States of America, 102(26), 9347-9352.
Wulf, G., " Lewthwaite, R. (2016). Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning. The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning. Psychonomic Bulletin " Review, 23(5), 1382-1414.
Zepeda, C. D., Richey, J. E., Ronevich, P., " Nokes-Malach, T. J. (2015). Direct instruction of metacognition benefits adolescent science learning, transfer, and motivation: An in vivo study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(4), 954-970.
Pintrich, P R. (2002). The role of metacognitive knowledge in learning, Teaching, and Assessing. Theory into practice, 41:4, 219-225. DOI: 10.1207/s15430421tip4104_3. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10. 1207/s15430421tip4104_3
Mastin, L. (2018). Memory Recall/Retrieval. The Human Memory. http://www.human-memory.net/processes_recall.html
Hesek E, (2004). Intrinsic motivation in the classroom: Increasing learning and retention. Rochester Institute of Technology, New York. http://scholarworks.rit.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=8618"context=theses
Shillingford, S and Karlin N. (2013). The role of intrinsic motivation in the academic pursuits of nontraditional students. DOI: 10.1002/nha3.20033. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.899.8285"rep=rep1"type=pdf
Hoe L, Cheong, A " Yee, L.(2001). The Role of Metacognition in the Learning of Mathematics among low-achieving Students. Institute of Education (Singapore). Teaching and Learning, 22(2), 18-30 https://repository.nie.edu.sg/bitstream/10497/279/1/TL-22-2-18.pdf
Mastin, L. (2018). Encoding Definition (Psychology) And Its Role In Memory. The Human Memory. https://www.betterhelp.com/advice/psychologists/encoding-definition-psychology-and-its-role-in-memory/
Cockcroft, K. (2015)The role of working memory in childhood education: Five questions and answers. South African Journal of Childhood Education. SAJCE vol.5 n.1 Johannesburg. http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext"pid=S2223-76822015000100004
