Sports have an essential role in the modern world today. Apart from the billions of shillings it creates in the world’s economy, it also encourages community unity and spirit. Similarly, sports play a significant role in improving participants’ skills both physically and mentally (Muir et al., 2014). Different people participate in sports for different reasons; some are interested in the fun in it while others are into the achievements and record-breaking. To perform great things in anything, one requires a role model and a guide. When sports are involved, the coach undertakes these roles of leadership and mentorship (Abraham et al., 2014). A sports coach is therefore expected to train his student’s different rules and roles about the game of specialty. Correspondingly, it is, therefore, important for coaches to add a variety of techniques and tactics to the beginners in the game. Sports coaching is consequently a process of imposing and contributing motivation and guidance to players to perfect them in a game.
Additionally, sports coaching also involves preparing an individual both mentally and physically for sporting career or game. In simple terms, the role of sports coaches is to understand, develop and optimize the capabilities of individuals or teams (Abraham et al., 2014). A sports coach has different functions, some of which revolve around physical, technical and tactical training and development throughout the career of players. In training environments, the coaches are expected to communicate and support players on ways to minimize errors and up their game (Abraham et al., 2014). Coaches work under different contracts mostly based on performance remit. When an assessment is being undertaken a positive sporting experience by a team or an individual determines the success of a sporting coach. The following reasons will define effective coaching, ‘performance and team evolution,’ ‘the execution of team performance,’ ‘the consistency of this execution in performance,’ and the ‘hard results and worst results by participants’ (Cruickshank " Collins, 2016).
The coaching process is an essential systematic series of goals, activities, and interventions, formulated with an objective of improving performance by a team. Despite the criteria aligned to explain effectiveness in performance and participation domains. The process of determining markers of progressive coaching is a difficult task (Williams et al., 2015). This result from the fact that a coaching process is a subjective and sporting outcome is more of variables. Similarly, the length of time in which allocated to assess the coaching process may be short before the efficiency of the training process are visible. Coaches face difficulties, as managers and athletes are more of evaluating the outcome of performance rather than determining the quality of the coaching process being used. In recent years, different sports coaches and managers lose their jobs not because they are not good coaches but because the training process they use has long-term objectives rather than short-term positive results. The method of effective coaching has contributed to the development of several models that have resulted in the understanding of coaching effectiveness and operationalize coaching. The most difficult challenge that people have to go through is understanding how they can transfer knowledge into a skill (Muir et al., 2014). For a coaching process to be, different successful theories have to be implemented to enhance a better experimental learning cycle (Cruickshank " Collins, 2016). Being a good coach does not necessarily mean working with the best performers, or teams with the historical trend of being in the top of the game. Several approach and theories of coaching are formulated in a way that they perceive an excellent coach to have behaviors that are distinct, observable, measurable, predictable, controllable, and generalizable. However, this approach has faced huge critics simply because coaching does not mean copying and reproducing a systematic approach in a game. Instead, it requires formulating new ideas. To ensure that coaching is undergoing smooth progress, it is essential to understand different concepts, models and theories discussing training and education within the coaching process.
Theories of Coaching Process
Experimental Learning Theory (ELT)
The experiential learning theory is a holistic model of learning process involving different models of multi-linear adult development (Fazel, 2013). These models include the knowledge we have about how people grow and develop. John Dewey is one of the most important contributors to this theory (Fazel, 2013). The experimental learning process entails four stages of learning that combine different approaches from experiences, perception, cognitive and behavior (Jones, 2007). John Dewey, Kurt Levin, and theorist David A. Kolb realized that ‘learning is a process where knowledge is realized through the transformation of experiences’. Through this knowledge on ELT, a different model has been developed with the aim of supervising practitioners. According to Kolb’s, a learner can acquire knowledge at optimum when he or she has the opportunity to understand the concepts in each stage since instant experiences act as a base of reflection and observation (Fazel, 2013). Assignments subjected towards all four phases of the ELT assist learners to work towards physical and psychological development and to direct personal growth through forcing them to apply the knowledge acquired in a coaching activity (Fazel, 2013). These stages are concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation.
Fig. 1: Four steps of the ELT (Fazel, 2013).
‘Experimental learning (EL) also involves a type of learning where students are given a chance by a coach to acquire and apply knowledge in an immediate and relevant setting (Fazel, 2013).’ For instance is a student is intending to play soccer he or she is given a chance to take part in the sport and apply his skill through this, he or she learns more about the competition.
Fig. 2: Experimental learning via a direct educational encounter (Fazel, 2013)
The direct experimental learning encounter entails direct confrontation of experience by the students without the involvement of a coach (Fazel, 2013). Contrary, the passive engagement mostly depends on the coach giving instructions resulting in less student contribution and participation in the learning process. Correspondingly, experiential learning has been associated with day-to-day encounters transforming to learning processes. To improve the educational experience of coachee, ‘adapting and adopting’ strategies have been used as teaching techniques by coaches. It is believed that there is no single teaching and training method that best suits a profession (Fazel, 2013). However, a good teaching and training method should be adaptable and should involve both the coach and the students. It is essential for students to be allocated a chance to monitor their learning process during ELP. Considering a case on experiential learning theory, the use of learning style inventory (LSI) assist in the self-examination from the learner being assessed, this also contributes in coming up with information that determines a coachee approach to training programs (Fazel, 2013). In sports, experimental learning can assist significantly in preparing coachee for main events and challenging tasks on football grounds. Experimental learning theory has faced critics for over-emphasizing on the teaching of a person without considering the broader of the social context of learning, power, and experience (Fazel, 2013). Consistent practice will eventually influence better performance and mastery in a game. Letting individuals in a team interact and brainstorm progressively allows them to understand different concepts (Rhodri et al., 2016). In case a coach assigns a given task and does not delegate any instruction it is the role of the team players to come up with solutions on the job, through this process they will encounter different obstacles that will contribute to learning as they solve them.
Practice-Based Coaching
The practice-based coaching, for instance, is an example of a cyclic process that supports a teacher to develop effective teaching methods and practices that lead to positive outcomes. The components of the coaching cycle are planning goals and action step, engaging in focused observation and sharing feedback about teaching practices.
Fig. 3: Practice-based coaching framework image sample (Jones, 2007).
According to the PBC framework, coaches use research-based strategies when supporting adult learning and professional development. On the other hand, teachers use effective curriculums and research-based teaching practices. A PBC framework is an essential coaching component that assists in the fulfillment of teaching practices as designed by a coach (Jenkins " Clarke, 2017).
Transformation Learning Theory
The transformation learning theory by Mezirow is one of the learning theories used in the coaching programs. The approach was created in the essence of changing how people view different outcomes from previous experiences (Fazel, 2013). Suggestively, Mezirow was interested in learning that ‘transforms in a frame of reference to make them inclusive, discriminating, reflective, open, and emotionally able to change.’ For a person to succeed, it is essential for him to believe that they can win despite previous failures in a game, a however critical reflection of the adjustment to be made is necessary through dialogue with coaches. Transformative learning is the process of enhancing change about a frame of reference. For transformative learning to be active, an educator must ensure that a learner understands how others and they perceive their assumptions (Fazel, 2013). During the learning process, coaches should ensure that a learner views problems from a different perspective through their imagination (Barnett et al., 2008). Similarly, active participation in disclosure during training provides the coaches with the ability to determine how his students arrive at better judgment regarding what they believes in. Transformation learning process is segmented into three fields of concerns on perspective transformation; this is; behavioral, psychological and conventional (Jones, 2007). Under the foundation of this theory, trainers have formulated ways to formulate goals, enhance self-efficiency in players though coming up with developed reliable coaches than before.
Correspondingly, Mezirow explains that deep learning can only be identified through a fundamental change on what a player believes in, their principles, and the feelings that develops a fundamental shift in the individual ’s understanding of oneself or others in relationship. The most significant challenge that a coach has is to develop a different feeling or perception from previous failures from a student. Negatives results may create false beliefs that the past experiences determine our future. This past experiences may turn out to build a strong feeling of dominance as a real entity, turning out to challenges, regarding perception and belief both in self-reliance in a sport and situational focusing. Coaches use methods such as “logical levels alignment,” “timeline,” “change belief cycle,” and “core transformation,” to enhance deep learning to clients (Fazel, 2013). The primary importance of transformative learning theory is to change the attitude, perception, and belief of coachee through the help of a coach, on previous performances, to improve the outcomes of future results in a game.
Action Learning
Action learning involves a group-based process that aims at developing creative solutions addressing complex problems (Fazel, 2013). This process is also involved in identifying opportunities for teams, and individuals transformation learning theory is essential when deriving the ‘action learning’ since they are both interlinked. Comparatively, the process involves a group of four to eight individuals who assist one another in addressing problems within different activities in sports. This process entails sharing ideas to assist in coming up with relevant and realistic actions to handle different priorities. The process itself is said to be dynamic and responsive to objective questions with interest in observing and understanding coach’s knowledge, which in the end shifts to reflective questions. Reflective question is formulated to explore feelings, motives and personal connections towards situations (Fazel, 2013).
L (Learning) = P (programmed knowledge) + Q (questioning insight)
Different approaches have been developed to handle action learning; however, the Marquardt model is the most famous with an addition of the reflection part of the argument over the Raven's formulae. Marquardt argues that a good question during learning should reflect on the current problem, the goals for the questions, the strategies to be put in place and the implementation plan of these strategies in any coaching activity. Coaching process depends on the powerful questions that arise from encountered problem (Fazel, 2013). This assists coachees to find their answers, navigate, and counter problems through their solutions. Similarly, it is more convenient for a coach to give a question rather than an answer a question leads to a learning process while an answer does not. Open-ended questions will assist a coach to develop the comprehensiveness and creativity of his students. A closed-ended question is relevant for coaches only after the divergent thinking is successively completed. Close-ended questions are also relevant when coaches want to; narrow down a conversation. They also contribute greatly when a coach is looking for specific answers that successively lead them to a conclusion on the training progress.
Uses of Theories and Concepts in Coaching
The biological and psychological development of young children requires different models and theories to explain it in the coaching department. Experimental learning theory will assist a coach to understand different behaviors from participants and coachee within support (Jones, 2007). A coach is equipped in a capacity that he can explain patterns of growth and associate them with the necessary training activities for the student (Barnett et al., 2008). Since learning influences human adaptation to both the social and physical environment. The experience of a coach can provide a foundation for the training he is to assign to his coachee. In case of maltreatment in a sport, a coach can intervene professionally and raise arguments on the same. Module exercises in coaching are designed in a way that coaches can relate to real-world sports experiences. The role of experiential learning theory in explaining learning as a process is to ensure that an individual continues to acquire knowledge throughout the observation and development period. Child motor skill proficiency, for instance, can be categorized in the experimental learning theory (Barnett et al., 2008). The health of an adults, for example, can be assessed through the development of children regarding health status. A coach can understand the setbacks of a coachee by learning his history and determining possible resolution a training activity for the findings he comes up with. Similarly, previous sports experience by the coaches can assist him or her to develop teaching programs for his students. The adolescent physical activity is another established model that is involved in experimental learning theory. Constant training and adaptivity in a task such as bodybuilding among individuals assist in the capability of muscle development (Rhodri et al., 2016). The more frequent and consistent an individual handles training the more progressive the outcomes to develop. Organized sports training in childhood may be associated with good performance in adulthood regarding balance and skill. Greater motor skill competence as a child may assist in the development of better self-esteem about these types of activities (Cruickshank " Collins, 2016). Similarly, the capability for a person to perform in a game will increase enjoyment on the involvement in the same. Due to previous experiences, and perception in this sport, results that affect the cognitive and behavioral side of an adult are altered to increase interest and love towards being part of the game. Childhood motor skill proficiency and physical activity levels in adolescence can, therefore, be associated with experiential learning theory. A good example is: adaptation in muscles strength is associated with intensive training as research explain well-developed training programs can benefit people of different ages.
Since the transformative learning theory is created in the essence of changing how people view different outcomes from previous experiences, the main agenda is to counter the thoughts of a coachee. The emotional intelligence, for instance, can be used in shaping the perception of an individual in failure. The development of emotions is mostly associated with previous encounters. EL can assist during the process of fighting tension and challenges in a sport. Past shortcomings can be used as a foundation that supports a coachee to learn from a mistake rather than despair. Transformation theory can equip a coach with the knowledge of detecting emotional breakdown, or fears, determining what they mean and what they are associated with, then transform this knowledge as a mode of reasoning and problem-solving criteria. A scenario where an athlete lost a race due to his incapability to push on can be subjective to psychological on resistance. Psychological benefits associated with resistance training are dominant in changing the mental performance of a coachee. The pain of losing a race may be used as a motivation to assist a trainee to push harder in training (Rhodri et al., 2016). However, moderate training is required at all times to avoid adverse psychosocial effects. The coach has the role of to listen to the individual's concerns and at the same time assess his physical and psychological perception. Experiential learning via a direct educational encounter can also assist a trainee to learn from his encounters within training grounds by implementing skills he or she believes are executable. Coaches, on the other hand, can use action learning in lessons that involve groups of people. This is whereby a coach can assign a task and request the players to come up with methods of handling the barriers within the task (Williams et al., 2015). The central role of action learning is promoting team building as the question arises during the training session developing new lessons to be learned. As questions appear within training sessions, the coach can identify the feelings, motives and personal connections towards various situations; this assists them in building confidence amongst the coachee and helping them believe in themselves.
Conclusion
Summing up, theories within coaching process have significantly contributed to the development of coaches. Comparatively, coaches have also acquired ideas on how to tackle different results arising from previous encounters in the competition part of sports. These theories have also assisted in understanding the learning process, and different models that can be used during learning. The learning process has been associated to be long a systematic and one that requires different participants. It is essential for a coach to allow his students to acquire knowledge for themselves at times rather than always delegating what to be done, this assists them in hardening up and development of self-confidence. Consistent training from childhood develops the skill of a child systematically, and the effects are notable even in adulthood. Questions are essential during practice, but the kind of questions asked to determine the findings a coach intends to collect.
References
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