Colorism can be defined as a bias that is based on the symbolic meaning of skin tone or color. In many societies, color symbolism is often used to designate positive from negative. For instance, the postcolonial American cultures the associates the dark color more negatives than positives. Studies show that colorism does not impact negatively on adults but also on children and adolescents of both genders. It has also been proved that having a darker skin tone has significant drawbacks and that African Americans are affected by colorism in almost all domains.[1] This paper will, therefore, discuss the Psycho-Social Impacts of Colorism among African American High School Students regarding discrimination, self-esteem, mate selection, media representation, and attractiveness.
Literature review
Historical Context of Colorism
Colorism in America dates back to slavery, and it is deeply manifested in the societal constructs of most Americans. Color bias affects how African Americans view themselves and also informs how they interact with other members of the society. The propagation of colorism is due to the internalized racism and the impact of America’s majority cultures on how African Americans view themselves. Research shows that there exists a color gap in privilege among the black community in America and that it can be historically rooted in mixed race sexual relationships of slaves and their masters. These relationships created imbalances and privilege gaps between lighter and black skinned Africans in the USA. The social distance was mostly promoted by the ideologies brought by European colonists that associated blackness with naivety, lack of civilization, unrestrained sexuality, pollution, and dirt.[2] Since colorism has impacted century-old racist practices, it, therefore, deserves to be studied and analyzed.
Most African Americans are conscious of their color. Color consciousness among the African American community is described as a legacy of slavery since better treatment was accorded to offspring of white masters and slave women than pure Africans. For instance, black slaves were considered to be better suited for harsh outdoor field work while lighter children were deemed to be suited for favorable house slave work. Lighter skinned slaves were also privileged to receive basic and higher education which afforded them more opportunities. Light-skinned African Americans also tried to disassociate themselves from other darker-skinned African Americans by forming civic and cultural organizations, fraternities, sororities, schools, and universities that were exclusive for light-skinned African-Americans.[3]
Color consciousness among African American was also propagated by the dissention of good hair and bad hair in the black community. There was a perception by the black community that whiteness was the standard of beauty and hence lighter skin and longer, silkier hair were preferential, even between siblings.[4]
Studies have also shown that colorism continued to post-slavery eras where there have been poor interactions between which light-skinned African Americans and dark-skinned African Americans. In many instances, light-skinned African Americans have rejected their black counterparts often reacted and criticized them for not being black enough. Light skinned African Americans often consider themselves beautiful and intelligent since they closely resemble whites.[5] Inter-group racism among African Americans, therefore, have more significant impacts on the Black community in America since it asserts racial socialization that usually begins in childhood and greatly impacts on the future development of black children.[6]
Colorism is, therefore, a psychological effect of slavery in America and it can be described as a ghost that is haunting African American community. The relation of intelligence, beauty, and to Caucasian features is a belief that is relevant today a disproportionate number of professional, educated, and “the perceived ‘beautiful’” African Americans have prominently Caucasian features. In spite of several efforts to refute the inferiority perception among African Americans, this inferiority view of darker skin tones and highlights still affects the Black community and manifests currently in many ways.[7]
Discrimination
Many African American children have grown up in environments where they hear comments that prejudice against persons with a dark skin tone. Such kind of socialization greatly contributes towards the perpetuation racism that has greatly affected the community since it has negatively impacted the physical, psychological, emotional, educational, financial, and relational well-being of its members. Colorism does not only affect individuals with dark skin tone, but its impact also spread to people of any skin tone. Colorism has therefore negatively affected majority of the members of the American community in one way or another regardless of the lightness or darkness of the skin. Most members of the community who have been racially discriminated often exhibit the feeling of not belonging. Therefore both light and dark skinned children have faced prejudice and discrimination not only from the majority groups but also from within their group.[8]
Studies, for instance, show that light-skinned African American children often feel different from their friends. This is usually influenced by the teachings they got from their families about color. Color variances also impact the feeling within the family and the neighborhood’s social composition. The skin tone of these children also affects their choice of friends, created diverse experiences in adolescence, influenced their perceived identity by whites, and reflected experiences of outright racism.[9]
Studies have however shown that black children are profoundly affected by colorism than their light-skinned mates. Although light-skinned African American children also suffer intra-group discrimination, research shows that black children suffer more discrimination. It is therefore indicative that colorism has impacted pervasive and universal discrimination on the black community and children with a dark skin tone have suffered most of it.[10]
Media Representation
There has also been a bias in media representation about one’s skin tone. Research has found that light skinned women are likely to feature in advertisements and editorial photos. In spite of the revolutions and social uproar advertisements still, favor light skinned and more Eurocentric models. Some editorials, however, try to represent a balanced view of African American women by including light and dark-skinned women in their images. In spite of the balance, there is, however, a bias in the use of descriptors such “pretty, lovely, and beautiful” are used more on light skinned women than black skinned women.[11]
Additionally, research shows that media images and videos tend to have African American women and children who tend to be light skinned.[12]
It is also common that most news watchers have a negative perception of dark-skinned criminals shown on television.. Most of them perceive black perpetrators to be more dangerous, and therefore they feel a little more discomfort when a black-skinned perpetrator is shown in the news story. Therefore in America, the dark skin is therefore still associated with dangerousness and other many negative aspects and it is still perpetuated by media.[13]
Attractiveness
Attractiveness and desirability are major issue that cannot be avoided in the debate of colorism among African American youths. The lasting historical perception that light skinned women are more attractive to men than their dark-skinned counterparts still exists in the American community. This perception is due to the historical association of beauty with whiteness a belief that has greatly affected the relationship of African American women with family, dating and social context. Therefore in a society where skin lightness of is highly valued; dark skinned girls will be disadvantaged. [14] It is therefore due to this disadvantage that most women seek to change their appearance so as to increase their attractiveness. The desire for lighter skin is present in many countries but the prevalence is higher among young and educated urban American women.[15]
Glen also finds that media images have also increased the desire in young women to enlighten and it has led to an increased number of younger women buying skin bleaching products.
The aspect of the effect colorism on attractiveness is not unique to women. Men’s attractiveness is also affected by colorism. Studies show that in America, light, bright men are rated as most attractive by members of the opposite sex compared to the dark or black ones. It is therefore clear that skin has a significant impact on the attractiveness of both young boys and girls and it ultimately contributes to the preference of light skinned women by African American men during mate selection which may lead to competition among African American women.[16]
Mate Selection
Mate selection among American students is also another aspect affected by colorism. According to studies, it is believed by most African American men that that African American females prefer dark-skinned men regardless of their skin tone. Conversely, the research also finds that African American men prefer light skinned women. The beliefs continue to perpetuate the residual effects of gender and color dynamics that existed during slavery where darker men were thought to be more sexual and aggressive and lighter females were thought to be more desirable and attractive. The interesting findings of the study are that the opposite gender does not prefer darker or light skinned companion respectively. Both genders, however, prefer medium or brown toned partners. According to studies, women who were in the category that was not preferred by potential mates were likely to suffer from low self-esteem. Explaining why darker skinned African American women are more likely to suffer from l ow self-esteem. [17]
Due to the preference of light-skinned African American women by their male counterparts, most dark-skinned females do not get mates due to the disproportionate ratio of available black men to women which makes to most dark-skinned African American women stay single for longer.[18]
Self-Esteem
In spite of most dark-complexioned young African Americans viewing their skin positively and considering it as a source of pride, some are however ambulant, and they view their blackness as a mark of oppression.[19] On the other hand, light-skinned African Americans who are highly regarded to be attractive are often belittled because they do not act or look black enough. Since color and attractiveness are closely linked the likelihood of stereotypes of color and attractiveness preference will be high in black women. The perception greatly impacts the self-esteem in African American women. Studies also prove that skin color accurately predicts perceived self-efficacy in men, and self-esteem in women. These studies also indicate that dark-skinned African American often have problems with their self-worth and confidence and that most black women expect to be judged on their skin tone. It is also evident according to Thompson and Keith that dark-skinned African Americans expect to be perceived negatively by the community. The bias on skin tone, therefore, has a greater impact on African American school children’s self-esteem.[20]
Additionally, studies by Falconer and Neville on overall body satisfaction of African American female college student found that there is a correlation between skin tone and body satisfaction. The studies also found that regardless of other features such as weight or ethnic identification, dissatisfaction with one’s overall appearance is significantly determined by dissatisfaction one’s color. Falconer and Neville imply women become more critical of their bodies due to higher internalization of the external standards of beauty. Therefore skin color has a significant impact on the self-esteem of most female students. For instance, light-skinned female African American students have high self-esteem since they consider themselves compliant with societal norms of beauty.[21]
Methodology
This study is designed to investigate the experiences that African American high school students have around discrimination based on their color. It is usually assumed that participants would have similar experiences as high school students and as African Americans, and that experiences would be relatively similar within same color groups. The participants were also expected to have differing experiences between groups, as their experience of colorism is likely to have impacted them in different ways. This study examined how African American high school students of different skin tones have understood themselves and other students of different skin tones. Past studies have shown that skin tone affects self perception. They also shows that self-perception affects relations with others. The current study will seek to investigate how experiences of skin tone bias among students affects relations with others. The independent variable in this study is therefore the skin tone of the participants is therefore and the moderating variable is Self perception is. The dependent variable, or the construct being investigated, are the experiences of each group and the effect skin tone has on group interaction or the process of relating to members of the out-group, which is expected to be influenced by their own experiences of colorism.
The participants were asked to engage in an activity to express personal experiences that were especially impactful. This was meant to encourage dialogue on their own experiences, reduce potential defensiveness, and facilitate interaction with the other groups. It was expected that the participants would express their varied experiences, interact during this exercise, and gain a greater understanding of the out-groups (either light, brown, dark skinned students). The students in the study then participated in a focus group discussion to elaborate on their experiences. The focus group method employed a group process that generated and encouraged expression and interaction between groups. It was designed primarily to investigate what the differing experiences of colorism have been, and then secondarily to explore how African American high school students talk about their experience of colorism through group interaction.
This qualitative study brought together a sample of twenty four African American high school students of different hues to give voice to their experiences of colorism. The students engaged in an exercise designed to reduce potential defensiveness and to elicit their experiences of discrimination based on skin tone. They were then asked to engage in a group discussion on their experience.
Findings
This section discusses the findings that the research got from the research study. The study sought to explore African American high school students experience with colorism and its impact on their attractiveness, mate selection, and self-esteem. Throughout the section, the groups are represented chronologically starting with the light skin focus tone group (FG1), followed by the medium skin tone focus group (FG2), and lastly the dark skin tone focus group (FG3). The plan was to have each focus group consist of 8 participants, 4 boys and 4 girls, but while doing my first couple of preliminary demographic questionnaires I encountered a limitation whereby participants of focus group (FG3) did not answer the questionnaire. This was however due to early findings in the study that most of the participants in FG3 had self-esteem issues with their skin tone and thought very poorly about being labeled as dark-skinned persons. This therefore informed me to rethink my methodology and device a methodology that will encourage participants to confidently and proudly identify and select their true skin tone without fear of prejudice or discrimination which affects their self-esteem.
Conclusion
This study utilized a small sample of African American high school students to represent the greater experience of African American high school students. Despite the small sample size, the study provides useful information to psychologists who service African American high school students. It should also encourage further research into areas of intersecting diversity variables. This study highlighted the unique experiences and patterns of interactions between students of different skin tones. Overall, the results showed that African American students have unique experiences based on their skin tone, but also that their experiences as students of color were similar in many ways. The group also demonstrated that their experiences have influenced how they have interacted with women of different colors throughout their lives. Based on the findings of this study, it appears that African American students do interact with members of the out-group in ways that reflect their own personal experience of colorism. It can also be suggested that skin color and messages about skin color influence how women perceive themselves.
Limitations
The study however has some limitations that include the use of a small sample size and use of a convenience sample. The students who volunteered to participate in this study are likely to highly identify themselves as African American or black because they were recruited from organizations that promote African American values. Therefore a measure of racial identification would have been useful to assess level of racial pride and or salience of racial factors. Another limitation of the group, again in regards to the sample, is that this group of students from Charlotte County, Florida, limits both the number and variability required to generate mass assumptions and generalizations. The participants may not represent the level of skin tone discrimination that is likely to be more salient in other parts of the United States. There may also be very different experiences of colorism in southern, eastern, or western parts of the county. Beyond inclusion limitations there are clear limitations allowing participants to self identify their skin color. This has been a long standing concern in colorism research as it is completely subjective and thus not absolute markers of actual skin tone. Skin color is relative, thus in varying social settings one may be considered fair, compared to their immediate peers. Conversely that same individual may be considered darker in different social setting regardless of their actual skin color. However, the idea behind the study was to have students self-identify and discuss their own experiences, and not those of their assigned group.
Future Directions
Future studies on the topic seek to expand the understanding of intra-group colorism among African American children in elementary school. The study may also extend include other groups that were excluded for the purposes of this study, including the impact of colorism in African American children in middle school. Future studies might also include impact of colorism on adults living in rural areas and compare it to those living in urban areas. As the topic of colorism is not just an issue for African American students, future works could address populations in other countries and include students of different nationalities.
Biography
Akbar, N. (1984). Chains and images of psychological slavery. (pp. 34-37). Jersey City, NJ: New Mind Productions.
Banks, J. A., " Grambs, J. D. (1972). Black self-concept: Implications for education and social science. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Burton, L. M., Bonilla-Silva, E., Ray, V., Buckelew, R., " Freeman, E. H. (2010). Critical race theories, colorism, and the decade's research on families of color. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(3), 440-459
Coard, S. I., Breland, A. M., " Raskin, P. (2001). Perceptions of and preferences for skin color, black racial identity, and self-esteem among African Americans. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 31(11), 2256-2274
Cunningham, J. (1997). Colored existence: Racial identity formation in light-skin Blacks. Smith College Studies in Social Work, 67(3), 375-400.
Dixon, T. L., " Maddox, K. B. (2005). Skin tone, crime news, and social reality judgments: Priming the stereotype of the dark and dangerous black criminal. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 35(8), 1555-1570.
Falconer, J. W., " Neville, H. A. (2000). African American college women's body image: An examination of body mass, African self-consciousness, and skin color satisfaction. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24(3), 236-243.
Fears, L. M. (1998). Colorism of black women in news editorial photos. The Western Journal of Black Studies, 22(1), 30-36.
Glenn, E. N. (2008). Yearning for lightness: Transnational circuits in the marketing and consumption of skin lighteners. Gender " Society, 22(3), 281-302.
Hill, M. E. (2002). Skin color and the perception of attractiveness among African Americans: Does gender make a difference? Social Psychology Quarterly, 65, 77- 91
Hughes, M., " Hertel., B. R. 1990. The significance of color remains: A study of life chances, mate selection, and ethnic consciousness among Black Americans. Social Forces 68 (4): 1105-20.1991-01032-001 (cited in Fears 1998)
Keith, V. (2009). A Colorstruck World: Skin Tone, Achievement, and Self-esteem Among African American Women. In Glenn, E. N. (Ed.). Shades of difference: Why skin color matters. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Keith, V. M., " Herring, C. (1991). Skin tone and stratification in the Black community. American Journal of Sociology, 97, 760-78.1992-16220-001
Thompson,, M. S., and V. M. Keith. "Gender " Society." The blacker the berry: Gender, skin tone, selfesteem and self-efficacy 15, no. 3 (2001), 336-357.
Parks, C. W., " Woodson, K. M. (2002). The impact of skin color and hair texture on mate selection: Implications for interventions with African American men and women. In The California School of Professional Psychology Handbook of Multicultural Education, Research, Intervention, and Training. (pp. 249-262) Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA, US.
[1]
Burton, L. M., Bonilla-Silva, E., Ray, V., Buckelew, R., " Freeman, E. H. (2010). Critical race theories, colorism, and the decade's research on families of color. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(3), 440-459
[2]
Glenn, E. N. (2008). Yearning for lightness: Transnational circuits in the marketing and consumption of skin lighteners. Gender " Society, 22(3), 281-302.
[3]
Ibid.,287
[4]
Keith, V. M., " Herring, C. (1991). Skin tone and stratification in the Black community. American Journal of Sociology, 97, 760-78.1992-16220-001
[5]
Fears, L. M. (1998). Colorism of black women in news editorial photos. The Western Journal of Black Studies, 22(1), 30-36.
[6]
Banks, J. A., " Grambs, J. D. (1972). Black self-concept: Implications for education and social science. New York: McGraw-Hill.
[7]
Akbar, N. (1984). Chains and images of psychological slavery. (pp. 34-37). Jersey City, NJ: New Mind Productions.
[8]
Cunningham, J. (1997). Colored existence: Racial identity formation in light-skin Blacks. Smith College Studies in Social Work, 67(3), 375-400.
[9]
Cunningham, J. (1997). Colored existence: Racial identity formation in light-skin Blacks. Smith College Studies in Social Work, 67(3), 375-400.
[10]
Hughes, M., " Hertel., B. R. 1990. The significance of color remains: A study of life chances, mate selection, and ethnic consciousness among Black Americans. Social Forces 68 (4): 1105-20.1991-01032-001 (cited in Fears 1998)
[11]
Fears, L. M. (1998). Colorism of black women in news editorial photos. The Western Journal of Black Studies, 22(1), 30-36.
[12]
Akbar, N. (1984). Chains and images of psychological slavery. (pp. 34-37). Jersey City, NJ: New Mind Productions.
[13]
Dixon, T. L., " Maddox, K. B. (2005). Skin tone, crime news, and social reality judgments: Priming the stereotype of the dark and dangerous black criminal. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 35(8), 1555-1570.
[14]
Keith, V. (2009). A Colorstruck World: Skin Tone, Achievement, and Self-esteem Among African American Women. In Glenn, E. N. (Ed.). Shades of difference: Why skin color matters. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
[15]
Glenn, E. N. (2008). Yearning for lightness: Transnational circuits in the marketing and consumption of skin lighteners. Gender " Society, 22(3), 281-302.
[16]
Hill, M. E. (2002). Skin color and the perception of attractiveness among African Americans: Does gender make a difference? Social Psychology Quarterly, 65, 77- 91
[17]
Coard, S. I., Breland, A. M., " Raskin, P. (2001). Perceptions of and preferences for skin color, black racial identity, and self-esteem among African Americans. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 31(11), 2256-2274.
[18]
Parks, C. W., " Woodson, K. M. (2002). The impact of skin color and hair texture on mate selection: Implications for interventions with African American men and women. In The California School of Professional Psychology Handbook of Multicultural Education, Research, Intervention, and Training. (pp. 249-262) Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA, US.
[19]
Coard, S. I., Breland, A. M., " Raskin, P. (2001). Perceptions of and preferences for skin color, black racial identity, and self-esteem among African Americans. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 31(11), 2256-2274.
[20]
Thompson, M. S., " Keith, V. M. (2001). The blacker the berry: Gender, skin tone, selfesteem and self-efficacy. Gender " Society, 15(3), 336-357.
[21]
Falconer, J. W., " Neville, H. A. (2000). African American college women's body image: An examination of body mass, African self-consciousness, and skin color satisfaction. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24(3), 236-243.
