1.1.Introduction
Consumption behavior is the study of people or groups in reference to their tastes and preferences associated with their purchase, consumption, and disposal of commodities and services. This brings in context their preceding and aftermath mental and emotional behavioral responses(Brodie, et al., 2016, p. 198). Over the years, it has been noted that people purchase luxurious goods and services to impress. This rationale is emphasized as a signal to social status(Kapferer & Bastien, 2009, p. 318). According to the conspicuous consumption theory, luxury brands serve as an indication to express one’s prestigious positions(Plourde, 2008). According to a previous research by Leibenstein (1950), it illustrates the significance of ‘signaling effects’ on consumption as an assertion that the perceived importance of a commodity can be augmented or diminished. This puts into consideration the possible influence from other peoples purchasing power, the utility of the products, and the price level. In this case, the value of commodities rises while the consumption of this commodity falls or as scarcity increase, a condition referred to as the ‘snob effect’
1.2. Background of the Study
Individuals with the dark triad personality, in most cases, strive for status and prestige. This personality involves three socially aversive traits. They are; Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and Psychopathy (Paulhus & Williams, 2002, p. 367). These traits, also have an agenting orientation that corresponds to external goals such as money and power(Lee, et al., 2013). According to Jonason and Webster (2012), the dark triad traits are also related to characteristics involving manipulation and exploitation of other people. They claim that individuals with high dark triad personalities tend to deploy others and initiate different manipulative means to their own advantage. This, for instance, may include conspicuously possessing and consuming luxurious goods as a signal of wealth. Such individuals believe that in doing so they can heighten their social standing among the general public(O’Cass, 2002, pp. 71-7).
1.3. Research aim and Objectives
Previously, studies on luxury consumption were mainly focused on the relationship between bright personality traits such as the five-factor personality traits and bandwagon effect(Schalkwyk, 2014, p. 88). However, there is a literature gap on the specific hypotheses relating to the linkages between dark triad traits and their influences on luxury consumption. Therefore, the aim of this study is to examine whether the narcissism, Machiavellianism and Psychopathy personality will have an impact on snob consumption behavior. The main objective is to find out the extent to which individuals high in dark triad tend to signal their self-concept through the conspicuous consumption of products or brands that have a snob appeal.
1.4. Value of the study
This research is essential in the marketing field knowledge. The study investigates the theoretical understanding of psychological antecedents; such as the Consumer Need for Uniqueness (CNFU), Consumer Susceptibility for normative influence (CSNI), and status seeking, of the snob effect and their relationship with consumers dark triad personalities. It examines consumer individual differences and the extent to which those characteristics influence on customers’ purchasing behavior.
The findings of this study can be applied by marketers to target a specific group of clients based on dominant personality traits. Marketers may improve brand personality and adjust positioning strategy to coincide with consumers’ self-concept. Hong and Zinkhan (1995) noted that self-concept-congruent advertising generates positive impact to brand preference and buying intention as consumers favor the products that can reflect their preferred self-image.
Chapter 2 Literature Review
2.0. Theoretical Background and Hypothesis
2.1. Signaling Consumption
The main rationale for luxury consumption is to satisfy an individual’s desire to express symbolic meanings. Social standing and societal status have been constituted and symbolized by prestige(Eisenstadt, 1968, p. 230). Similarly, Material possessions can be seen as the supposition of one’s success(Husic & Cicic, 2009, p. 238). Husic and Cicic (2009) noted that by using status goods and services as symbols, people send messages or signals about themselves to their reference groups.” Consumers can explicit (e.g., value-expressive attitude) and present (e.g., social-adjustive attitude) their self-concept through the consumption of luxury brand(Dubois & Duquesne, 1993, p. 40); (Wilcox, et al., 2009, p. 249).
Despite the individuals urge for the expression of their self-concept to their reference groups by the usage of luxurious possessions as symbols, they, however, often neglect the items’ functional utility and high price so as to acquire the status and wealth manifestation brought by the products(Bagwell & Bernheim, 1996, p. 355). Moreover, people with the ability to acquire expensive items are in most cases encouraged to feel more superior than others due to the high-price aspect of the commodity(Garfein, 1989, p. 132)
2.2. Snob Consumption Behaviour
Consumers who exhibit the snob behaviour favours goods and services that are exclusionary, genuinely luxurious, supply -born ratify, or less possessed by the general public (Amaldoss & Jain, 2008, p. 941). Snob individuals are not merely concerned about their status but also emphasize their need for non-conformity. This is an attempt to distinguish themselves from the conventional practices. People with independent self-concept orientation typically attempt to assert their unique personality, anti-conformist characteristics, and disclosure of personal preference, which is distinctive from the majority inclination(Ackerman & Chung, 2012)
In snob consumer perspective, the value of the commodity will decrease when other people adopt the same goods or that others are increasing their consumption rate of that products. This hence leads to the demonstration of the desire of people wanting to be exclusive; to be different; to dissociate themselves from the “common herd”(Leibenstein, 1950, p. 205). In addition, snob consumers will stop purchasing the commonly owned goods and services citing that the popularity eradicates the uniqueness utility of the commodities which is a crucial factor in maintaining the snob consumer demand (Parker & Lehmann, 2012, p. 418)
In marketing, the negotiation tactics used in persuading snob customers to purchase products should trigger a snob attribute in order to provoke the customer's interest. This includes highlighting the snob personal attributes such as the commodities’ ability to prove their identity and status. For instance, the agent should apply the ‘status insult’ tactic. This tactic criticizes the social prestige of the snob consumers hence triggering their intention to ratify their social statuses by making a purchase decision(Matsibekker, 2008, p. 65).
2.3. Bright Personality Traits
The human behaviour can be expressed by measuring the six central traits. They include; general intelligence, openness, Conscientiousness agreeableness, stability, and extraversion. Taking, for instance, the use of the word “smart” can be adopted in product labels to target consumers who desire to signal their intelligence(Miller, 2009, p. 104). Additionally, stable personalities, for example, conscientiousness, ambition, intelligence and other characteristics that dominate the ability to become wealthy, can possibly influence the consumer buying behaviour (Nelissen & Meijers, 2011, p. 345).
On the other hand, McCrae and Costa (1986 p. 113) arranged personality traits into five factors, which consisting of Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, Openness to Experience and Extraversion. The Big Five traits of McCrae and Costa (1990, p. 215) is recently considered as one of the fundamental models in the personality trait theory. This model characterizes a personality by emotional, cognitive and behavioral aspects, which are distinctive in their respective combination.
Agreeableness is the characteristic that sympathetically expresses generosity to others. People with high level of agreeableness tend to be compassionate, amiable, gullible, reliable and honest(Mowen, 2011, p. 243). Agreeableness intimately associated with the pursuit to correspond and unify with others(Wiggins, 1991). This behaviour related to informative influence, referring to an acceptance of information from other and considering this information as a representation of reality (Deutsch & Gerard, 1955, p. 631). Also, the traits of agreeableness are directly related to individuals who pursue and willingly receive information from others. This is the tendency to accept intimation of consumption related to the signaling behaviour, which demonstrates the need to conform and inform the brand's popularity(Schalkwyk, 2014, p. 128).
Conscientiousness, on the other hand, refers to an individual’s degree of organization, determination, diligence, and goal orientated inclination(Jonason & Webster, 2012, p. 524). Individuals with public self-consciousness susceptibility are more likely to associate with fashion innovativeness and fashion leadership(Gould & Barak, 1988, p. 396). Therefore, such individuals spend on fashion trends to impose and convey social identity and they adopted fashion consumption as the means to express their social status (Noesjirwan & Crawford, 1982, p. 157). People believe that they can use their preferred products to indicate their personality and interests, hence signaling their self-concept to others who have a similar preference.
Neuroticism is a personality dimension that involves adaptation ability and emotional stability. Individuals at the high end of this dimension are more likely to maintain a high level of negative attributes, for instance, anxiety, aggression, desperation and vulnerability(Costa & McCrae, 1992, p. 239). Johnson and Attmann (2009) emphasized that there is a direct relationship between compulsive buying and neuroticism. Gohary and Hanzaee, (2014) further assert that neuroticism is a significant predictor of impulse buying. A study indicated that participants with high scores in Neuroticism have a tendency to be impulsive, due to the pursuit of temporary means to eradicate distress. According to Lennox and Wolfe (1984), there exists a direct relationship between two dimensions of social anxiety (i.e., apprehension of negative judgment and neuroticism) and the attention to social comparison information (ATSCI). Snyder (1974) defined ATSCI as the implication to appropriate self-expression. People with high level of ATSCI are likely to make a decision on product choices based on social cues. These individuals are highly apprehensive about others’ opinion and evaluation of their product selection and consumption. Moreover, Schalkwyk, (2014) found that high need for emotional stability was associated with fashion consciousness. This indicates a tendency of Neuroticism to closely related to bandwagon consumption, a reversed effect of snob consumption behaviour.
Openness to Experience describes the extent to which individuals are intellectually inquisitive and tends to proactively pursue unfamiliar experiences and novel conceptions. Openness is positively related to individuals’ characteristics that are imaginative, intelligent, and untraditional(McCrae & Costa, 1987). Openness to Experience is not associated with the normative influence or rather the need for conformity. People who are highly scored on openness trait tend to possess a high need for uniqueness, and they incline to correlate with counter-conformity and avoid seeking or agreeing to the popular choices. This trait influences the propensity to breach the rules of their reference group in order to distinguish their idiosyncratic perspective(Tian, et al., 2001, p. 60). A research by Schalkwyk (2014) also suggests that individuals who retain a high degree of normative influence will have a tendency to be low in openness to experience. This, hence makes them lack uniqueness and less feasible in social compliance.
Extroverts are individuals who are sociable, active, person-oriented, optimistic and affectionate and their sensation is primarily influenced by extrinsic experiences rather than internal cognitive functions(McCrae & Costa, 1985, p. 717). A research conducted by Casidy (2012) indicated that there was a positive correlation between extraversion and fashion consciousness trait. Extroverts pursue gratification from external cognitive conditions by conspicuously consuming luxury goods. Extroverts need witnesses to observe their conspicuous consumption in order to acquire positive opinion, admiration and sympathy from society as extroverts seek to be perceived and accepted as part of a particular socio-economic group(Zernova, 2010). As Wilt and Revelle (2009) put it; sociability and ambitious characteristics of extroverts push them to pursue status consumption. A study conducted by Landis & Gladstone (2017) identified that extrovert individuals across the economic board spent more on status than the introverts. However, the study did not show great disparities between the extraversion and introversion in higher earning groups.
On the other hand, introverts tend to perceive luxury as exclusivity, meaning that they value luxury products that are not commonly adopted by everyone(Wiedmann, et al., 2009, p. 632). Introverts highly focus on their internal cognitive processes rather than connecting with people, leading to a lifestyle evaluation based upon their inner sensibility of themselves. Introverts delicately evolved the perception of “ideal-self”. This means that they are leveraged by inside emotion of enjoyment individually and privately when purchasing and consuming luxury materials. Possessing luxury goods to become part of the majority is not consistent with introversion. This is in line with the fact that they do not seek to belong with the general public(Zernova, 2010).
It is, thus, evident that individual differences in bright personality traits contribute to the variation in consumer purchasing behaviour. People attempt to express their self-concept and social status by either seeking conformation or unique choices.
2.4. Dark Personality Traits
The Dark Triad personalities involve narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. This is a set of subclinical anti-social characteristics, which are generally and directly interconnected. However, the Dark Triad demonstrates different elements of socially aversive behaviour and represent distinctive interrelationship with bright personality traits namely, the Big Five personality model(Paulhus & Williams, 2002). It was noted that there was a positive relationship between narcissism and the Big Five traits such as extraversion and openness to experience. Machiavellianism was adversely associated with agreeableness and psychopathy was negatively related to conscientiousness and agreeableness. All dark personalities were found to exhibit a negative correlation to honesty-humility, expressing a distinct relationship between narcissism and low degree of greed avoidance and modesty, and a high tendency of Machiavellianism and psychopathy to associate with a low level of sincerity and fairness. Typically, A highly adaptive behaviour may rise due to the lack of extraversion in Machiavellianism. Narcissism, on the other hand, may be influenced by the comparatively higher degree of conscientiousness, hence triggering the need for admiration from others.
There exist crucial associations between the lack of honesty-humility in dark triad traits and the strong need for power. Individuals were influenced by money and power factors in pursuing a higher degree of material consumption and social status. The patterns of consumption may distinguish people who possessed high score in dark triad and a low score in honesty-humility, namely luxury consumption behaviour that may emphasize the individual’s self-centeredness and the need to be impressive by showing a successful image. Notably, people can signal their affluence to others by spending on expensive goods with the unimportant practical utility to exhibit the abundance of wealth that they can waste without pity(Lee, et al., 2013).
Another element of the dark triad is a status-driven risk-taking personality (SDRT). This refers to the tendency to pursue power and wealth despite the great risk of physical harm(Ashton, et al., 2010). A proponent suggests that the SDRT has a significant relation to low Agreeableness in the Five Factor Model and low Honesty-Humility in HEXACO model. SDRT is different from the sensation seeking and general risk-taking as it is mainly influenced by financial and social accomplishment instead of fulfillment from risky actions. This characteristic appears to associate with the self-admiration feature of narcissism and the psychopathy and Machiavellianism elements such as the manipulative behaviour in material seeking.
2.5. Analysis of the research gap
Most of the research conducted in this field have been vested in the correlation of the bright personality traits and the bandwagon effect. There has been little research trying to formulate a linkage between the dark triad personalities and especially in the marketing sector. This study will, therefore, be useful in developing marketing trends to attract and convince customers with snob consumption traits and who seek social status and signaling their self-concept through consumption.
Model and Hypotheses
2.0.1 Narcissism
A model of narcissism highlighted by Morf and Rhodewalt (2001) points out that narcissists necessitate the perpetual need for admiration in order to uphold their fragile and deceptive self-concept. Narcissists possess an extravagant and unrealistic perception of superiority(Campbell, et al., 2000). This makes them acquire high sensation of self-importance and consider themselves as being more prestigious and unique in comparison to others (Raskin & Terry, 1988). In most cases, narcissists are capable of exploiting people with disgrace or in disregard in order to their own need and self-worth (Campbell, et al., 2002; Leary & Hoyle, 2009 p. 549). Sedikides, Gregg, Cisek, & Hart (2007) maintains that self-centered narcissists ratify their exaggerated self-concept by spending conspicuously and occupying luxury goods. This is to ensure that people’s perceptions correspond with the desired notion of narcissist’s characteristics i.e., grandiosity, entitlement, and a typical need for assertion.
Individuals with a higher score of narcissism prefer to purchase consumer goods that provide a greater level of uniqueness in order to strengthen their positive distinctiveness(Lee, et al., 2013). However, this is never the case with individuals who possess a higher level of self-esteem. Narcissists can be termed as both individuals who intend to purchase goods that are undoubtedly distinctive and also people who tend to perceive any goods they purchased as being more distinctive. Additionally, individuals with narcissism scores find it more appealing to be associated with exclusive and rare products. This confirms that narcissistic individuals prefer goods that reinforce their positive uniqueness, which is closely associated with the characteristics of snobbish consumers(Lee, et al., 2013, p. 347)
Hence, in relation to this
H1: Narcissism will positively associate with snob consumption behavior
2.0.2. Machiavellianism
Machiavellianism refers to personality traits such as manipulativeness, insincerity, and callousness(Christie & Geis, 1970, p. 245). Machiavellian individuals pursue control over others and are solely interested in their own status. Machiavellians seek for external achievement indicators such as wealth and power to reflect their superiority status(Dahling, et al., 2009, p. 225). Moreover, it has been demonstrated that the typical Machiavellian person acquires a comparatively low level of Agreeableness. This is, for instance, Straightforwardness, Altruism, and Tender-mindedness, which can result in deceitful, self-interest, less cooperative behaviours, and high level of assertiveness from the domain of Extraversion(Miller, et al., 2016, p. 441). Schalkwyk (2014) claims that people with a low level of agreeableness are more likely to be less interdependent and tender, which mitigates their capability to listen to others. This means that this type of individual may not accept information from others and may not seek to conform with the majority. Therefore, Machiavellianism individuals are likely associated with status-seeking and uniqueness values in snob consumption.
Hence, it is suggested;
H2: Machiavellianism will positively associate with snob consumption behaviour.
2.0.3. Psychopathy
Psychopathy can be defined as the possession of characteristics of apathetic, insensitively manipulative and taking advantage of others for his/her own ends, and often related to impulsive traits which may contribute to antisocial and criminal behaviours(Hare, 1991, p. 152). According to Jones & Paulhus, (2011), psychopathy individuals are impulsive, thrill-seeking and short-term oriented. This means that they are most likely in pursuit for the instantaneous contentment of their desire and also incline for things that strengthen their personal excitement. Moreover, Pilch & Górnik-Durose (2016) points out that higher level of meanness, which is the interpersonal affective component of psychopathy, was associated with an assumption that retaining material goods is a significant contemplation of prosperity. Hence, status and power can be obtained by using material goods as a measurement. As a result of inclination for immediate pleasure, status and prestige, psychopathic individuals tend to pursue unique and luxury goods that allow them to distinguish themselves from the general public in order to reflect their power.
Hence, it is suggested;
H3: Psychopathy will positively associate with snob consumption behaviour
Moderators:
2.0.4. Consumer Need for uniqueness
Snob-prone consumers pursue dissociative utility. Their value is not driven by approval from others, in contrast, they tend to refrain from behaving in correspondence to the general public. An antecedent trait of snob behaviour has been reinforced by consumer need for uniqueness (CNFU). Kastanakis & Balabanis (2014) purports that it is crucial to focus on enhancement of the status derived from uniqueness, uniqueness-signaling, dissociative, or even norm-breaking characteristics in order to target the snob consumer segment. Consumer need for uniqueness (CNFU) can be defined as the act of pursuing differentiation relative to others through the acquisition, utilization, and disposition of consumer goods and services for the reasons of developing and enhancing their self-image and social status(Tian, et al., 2001).
There are three main aspects of CNFU. The first is; the “creative choice counter-conformity” which refers to the consumption that aims for social distinctiveness, yet still considering the choices that other people admire. The second is the “unpopular choice counter-conformity”. This is defined as buying a selection that is different from social norms and may incline to public disapproval. The third is; “avoidance of similarity”. This is the incidence where consumers lose interest in or discontinue the use of possessions that become commonplace to reestablish differentness (Tian, et al., 2001) A literature by Leibenstein (1950), demonstrates the snob consumers’ values of uniqueness to distinguish themselves from group norms and heighten autonomous self-concept by acting differently from the mainstream. The different levels of CNFU may affect the relationship between dark triad traits and snob effect.
Hence, it is suggested;
H4a: CNFU will positively moderate the impact of (a) narcissism, (b) Machiavellianism, (c) psychopathy on snob consumption behaviour.
2.0.5. Status Seeking
The snob effects can also be described through compensatory consumption. According to Gronmo (1988), compensatory consumption is the behaviour in which “consumption is heavily emphasized as a reaction to, and as an attempt to make up for a general lack of esteem or self-actualization”. In regards to the snob consumption behaviour, compensatory consumption can be illustrated through consumers who buy luxurious items to fulfill their status and wealth inadequacy as they believe their level of richness and prestige will increase by augmenting their expenditure on luxury consumption. Gollwitzer (1996) emphasized that that snob individuals tend to behave according to symbolic purposes since they enhance self-actualization by purchasing products that specifically indicate their individuality and dignity. Individuals with status-seeking higher social status strive to alleviate their social standing via the conspicuous consumption of consumer products that confer and symbolize status both for the individual and the surrounding others(Eastman, et al., 2015).
Kastanakis & Balabanis (2014) maintain that commodities that are widely adopted to claim status will deliberate less prestige value to snob consumers as mainstream goods are perceived as devastating status value. Unpopular luxury items are more desirable as they confer higher status utility by emphasizing fundamental attributes of status in term of distinctive and exclusive aspects. Moreover, Heller et al., (1973) point out that snob consumer who consider personal freedom and status are more likely to avoid purchasing goods in a case where someone extremely insists and persuades them to buy that product, in order to maintain individual independence. On the contrary, using moderate insult and mannerly rejection tactics to judge the social status of snob consumers will encourage them to purchase that particular product to prove their status(Matsibekker, 2008). This, therefore, proves that status seeking traits may affect the association between dark personality and snob consumption behaviour.
Hence, it is suggested that;
H4b: Status seeking characteristics will positively moderate the impact of (a) narcissism, (b) Machiavellianism, (c) psychopathy on snob consumption behaviour.
2.0.5. Status seeking; Consumers’ Susceptibility to Normative Influence (CSNI)
Corneo and Jeanne (1997) maintain that the desirability of particular goods declines owing to an increase in consumption of that goods. This indicates the way social norms and allocated status will influence the action of snob consumers. Previous research proposed that consumers perceived luxury consumption as a mechanism to increase social impression(Kapferer & Bastien, 2009). There are two dimensions of consumers’ susceptibility to interpersonal influence. They are the normative and informative influence. Consumers’ susceptibility to normative influence refers to the need to identify or enhance one's image with significant others through the acquisition and usage of products and brands, it can be termed as the willingness to conform to the expectations of others in regard to their purchase decisions(Bearden, et al., 1989, p. 473). On the other hand, Deutsch and Gerard (1955) characterized informational influence as the prospect to obtain information from others, which can arise by either seeking information from knowledgeable people or gaining conjectures by observing other people’s actions (Park & Lessig, 1977). This trait demonstrates a social orientation, which is adversely associated with snob effect.
Hence, it is suggested;
H4c: CSNI will negatively moderate the impact of (a) narcissism, (b) Machiavellianism, (c) psychopathy on snob consumption behaviour
2.0.6. Gender Variation
Ladik, et al., (2015) highlights that consumers tend to inform their self-concept by spending on particular goods. People emphasize their identity by using luxury items as a symbol to classify themselves into a desired group or societal roles (Bhat & Reddy, 1998, p. 32). Prior studies on gender differences in consumer behaviour typically suggest that male and female consumption pattern may vary depending on their distinctive life orientations. For instance, men tend to behave correspondingly to “task-oriented thinking” and “performance-motivated acting”, asserting individualistic personality of self-determination. Women, on the other hand, focus more on cooperative orientation, as they tend to conform their identity through emotional and social interaction with others (Meyers-Levy, 1988). It has been identified that women are more prone to be captivated by luxury goods that provide “uniqueness, hedonic, and status value” than their male counterpart. Luxury brands, therefore, attempt to offer higher level of product distinctiveness and status utility to female customers(Stokburger & Teichmann, 2013)
Hence it is suggested;
H5: Gender differences will moderate the impact of (a) narcissism, (b) Machiavellianism, (c) psychopathy on snob consumption behaviour
2.0.7 Cultural Variation
In this context, the snob behaviour arises in two ways. The first is when status sensitive consumers reject a certain product when it is seen or perceived to be consumed by the general mass of people (Mason, 1981, p. 187). The second occurs upon the launching of a new product when an individual takes advantage of the limited number of consumers at that time(Vigneron & Johnson, 1999). The snob effect, however, changes with different culture. For example, Chinese and British consumers respond to the occurrences of snob values differently. In the Britain market, consumers emphasize their prestige by being distinctive from other individuals, thus they will cease purchasing or using products when the products become common among the majority. In contrast, Chinese consumer mainly values the second snob motivation as becoming the first to acquire the products are more highly admired by the public (Wang & Zhao, 2014). Moreover, Hofstede (2013) points out that Western cultures are more individualistic and Eastern cultures are more collectivistic. This may indicate that Western consumers may focus more on uniqueness value, while individuals in Eastern cultures may seek to conform their consumption behavior with others.
Hence, it is suggested;
H6: Cultural differences will moderate the impact of (a) narcissism, (b) Machiavellianism, (c) psychopathy on snob consumption behaviour.
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