Art has existed for as long as man has. Sculptures, portraits, houses, decorations, and even instruments are evidence of it in all cultures. Given that all art has a motivation, the naming of the time from 1800 to 1945 as the "Modern World" age (Getlein, Mark). This age, in my opinion, marked the transition from old art that was minimal in variety to a modern technique that was not just dynamic but also long-lasting. My favorite movements from this period are neoclassicism, romanticism, realism, impressionism, post-impressionism, dada, and surrealism, which serve as the foundation for this essay. In the next paragraphs, I will discuss, highlight artists, give examples, and criticisms of their work.
Neoclassicism (1760-1810)
In neoclassicism, paintings, sculptures, and architecture was adopted and adapted as a representation of both aims and conventions of old art from ancient, newly discovered Roman ruins and relics for instance from Herculaneum and Pompeii. Artists here include Jacques Louis David and Jean-Antoine Houdon. Houdon is famous for his bust sculpture depicting Benjamin Franklin (See Fig. 1), while David is considered the most celebrated neoclassicist painter of his age with works that include the Oath of Horatii (See Fig. 2) done in 1785 ("Met Audio Guide Online"). In this style, the focus was on the line, with emphasis placed on sound design and contours. Although color use was there, it was localized, and yet the works remain evergreen.
The Smithsonian professor William Kloss in his art guidebook titled A History Of European Art: Course Guidebook agrees that such art was a description of changing times, (Kloss, William). In his analysis, political persuasions informed art presentations. Houdon therefore, sculpted for Franklin, and other American and French revolutionaries. These were people who were rebelling against oppression in their countries.
Kloss, from his reading of the book, History of Rome, retells of the painting, Oath of Horatii. It shows a disagreement between Romans and Albans. Whereas the Horatii of Rome appear ready to kill, their sisters of whom one is engaged to the Curiatii family of Alba appear distressed, (Kloss, William). The story in the painting forebodes the sacrifices required.
Romanticism (1800-1850)
The term suggests seduction, flattery or fantasy. The book Art History: The Key Concepts, states that Romanticism is expressed in the intense sensation, and odd states of experience depicted in the art, (Harris, Jonathan). Mark Geitlein in Living with Art argues that this was not a style, but rudeness. Further, the 18th Century was an age of reason, yet Romanticism went against this, focusing on perception, passion, individual experience, and fancy, (Getlein, Mark). It was thus opposite to neoclassicism, characterized by intense colors, tempestuous emotions, intricate configurations, subject matter from other lands, and easy frameworks as done by Eugène Delacroix and Théodore Géricault, (Harris, Jonathan). Edmund Burke in 1757 declared that whatever shocks the soul, leaves terror and is uplifting, ("Met Audio Guide Online"). The mentioned artists validate this observation.
In the 1824 painting Massacre at Chios,(See Fig. 3) a war scene shows Greeks fighting for freedom from Turks who in their attack on Chios had massacred civilians. Delacroix honors them in this painting. Each captive postures with dignity, showing tenderness and wretchedness. We see: a resigned father with children around is on the left; an old couple leaning on each other, a senior woman doubtfully observing the heavens and a nude bound woman, a slave. In the middle, a segment of space reveals both devastation and anarchy with a soldier on the first level, ("Met Audio Guide Online").
Géricault in Raft of the Medusa (see Fig. 4) details how a frigate in stormy seas and due to human error became a monumental tragedy, (Kloss, William). The work sweeps upwards from the gloom of dead bodies to the hope by the black man waving a white cloth to attract a distant ship; and from the sails black surge to the wave beyond it. These two dominant diagonal representations show how political decisions affected the then changing world.
Realism (1840’s to 1880’s)
‘Realism’ refers to the truth in something. In art, it reveals how painters and commentators successfully convey actuality of things. Harris, in Art History: The Key Concepts contends that it is two dimensional. It carefully depicts elements and also expresses sensitivity, selection, and psychological emphasis, (Harris, Jonathan). Further, there was rendering that evokes physical nature and material nuances in objects and human bodies. Professor Kloss discusses lithography as one of the preferred techniques during this era; this process enabled mass production through utilization of repulsion between grease and water. Gustave Courbet and Jean François Millet are some of the great artists from this era.
In A Burial at Ornans, (See Fig. 5) Courbet transcribes rural life in France and explores the profound attachment that the citizens in urbanized areas attached to their home regions. Equality hallmarks the canvas and Professor Kloss notes the human experience with regard to people and the clergy. The isolated cross and the grave on the ground show a disconnect between people and the church (Kloss, William). This reaffirmed the changing position of the common man with regard to religion.
In The Gleaners, (See Fig. 6) three women are performing hard labor. The background shows loading of hay wagons. A supervisor is there checking how work is progressing. Kloss in his analysis views the harvest as ‘what the landlord reaps,’ (Kloss, William). Realism here reinforces the need for change.
Impressionism (1870-1900)
An impression is a mental image. The term impressionism resulted from an 1872 artwork by Claude Monet, titled ‘An Impression, Sunrise.’ The impressionism era covered many subjects including nature, leisure, family, and self-portraits. These demonstrated a new awareness, (Harris, Jonathan). The premise for this realization was a need to leave a mark by any artistic means. The critic Charles Baudelaire argued that such artwork was an evaluation of reality and a recognition that modernity was coming to disturb the old social order, (Harris, Jonathan). Some outstanding artists of this period include Claude Monet and Edouard Manet.
Manet’s 1863 work Luncheon on the Grass (See Fig. 7) established him on the global art scene. Two smart Parisian gentlemen and two ladies one in a nightgown and the other nude feature in a picnic scene. The one in a lingerie wades in a pond behind them. The picnic basket on the left shows fruits, a flask and a baguette partly spilled, (Kloss, William). The controversy in it regards to lack of modesty, highly appreciated the time. The naked woman’s skin tone is flat, indicating little exposure. His use of black and white accentuates the artwork with green vegetation and dark trees in the back still-life.
Monet’s work Terrace at Saint-Adresse (see Fig. 8) was done when scarcity forced him to leave his expectant mistress Camille in Paris. It features a raised view of the sky, land, and sea restrained together by flagpoles. There is a flower garden in the lowermost epicenter. He chooses to white color to represent sunlight and snow, (Kloss, William). Like those before, these two artists highlight modernity and express the futility of trying to escape it.
Post Impressionism (1880-1920)
The period came after impressionism. Artists therein admired aspects of impressionist painting and detested others. They focused less on expressing a shared meaning and more on conveying individual artist space. Professor Kloss argues that the term post-impressionism is misleading since artists in the era ‘exhibited with impressionism’ all passed on before expressionists, (Kloss, William). Such include Georges Seurat and Vincent van Gogh. Getlein in Living with Art believes that theories of color led Seurat to Pointillism, a technique where dots and dashes enabled blending artwork with the eyes of the viewer. Further, he suggests that post-impressionists considered the world a place to ‘escape,' (Mark, Geltein).
In Sunday Afternoon on the Island of the Grande Jatte (see Fig 9), Georges Seurat utilized pointillism in which complementary colors lay side by side to achieve vibrancy and unity. There is a dominant couple, the lady has a parasol, and both have pets. To the left three unrelated figures are seen; a gentleman that appears to be a clerk, a woman doing needlework, and a dominant workman smoking. Seurat sets up perspective yet contradicts it using a high line perspective and dense trees that hinder movement into space. The absence of action and the seriousness of the figures in the view of Kloss indicates ‘…arrested time.’ A white wooden frame completes the image. Through Social commentary, modernity and subtle anarchy are essential themes, (Kloss, William).
Paul Gauguin’s Te Aa No Areois (The Seed of the Areoi), (See Fig. 10) appears a puzzle pieced together. White, blue-clothed motifs dance with freedom like the yellow palm trees in the background. A golden brown woman, likely from Egyptian art, sits holding a sprouting seed in her palm. Geitlin in Living with Art views the artwork a sign of ‘disappointment’ as European missionaries in Gaugins’s view and colonists ‘had ruined Tahiti,’ (Mark, Geltein). The exoticism in this painting reflects that modernity was gaining ground.
Dada (1916-1923)
Dada Art aimed to attack decadence and corruption among the rich, in church, nationalism, capitalism and a militaristic society. It started in Switzerland, and its members included poets, photographers, sculptors, and painters. They stressed on absurdity and illogicality, (Geitlin, Mark). Marcel Duchamp and Ernst Ludwig Kirchner are examples. The art rebellion in this work is consistent with change expected in any society.
In Duchamp’s Nude Descending a Staircase, (see Fig 11) he takes cue from slow-motion picture movement that illustrates how people and beasts moved. He combines object fragmentation and monochromatic palette from Cubism and Italian Futurists motion study. Professor Klosse finds it ironical that the object has no nudity as indicated in the title. The work only shows a figurative shape, repeatedly overlapping, (Kloss, William).
Ernst Ludwig Kirchner piece Self-Portrait as a Soldier (See Fig 12) was done while on garrison duty during WW1. It represents the possibility of losing body parts in war and castration. The painting shows him without his right hand, yet he has it. Whereas he positions himself in front of a painting depicting a woman, it appears as if he is standing in front of a nude woman. Kloss charges that the canvas angle tells this if seen from the right, (Kloss, William). Also, the picture is intentionally ambiguous and sexual.
Surrealism (1920’s-1950)
Surrealism means ‘beyond' realism. It was associated with irrational things like dreams and also with nonrational methods like automatism and painting, (Harris, Jonathan). The sexual content in this art according to Kloss, was due to the work of Sigmund Freud. In this category are René Magritte and Pablo Picasso.
In The Menaced Assassin, (See Fig. 13) Magritte combines things mostly unrelated to create depictions so challenging to explain that they were memorable. Kloss is at a loss as to who these witnesses are, their aims, and the location of the apartment; everything is expressionless, (Kloss, William). Despite all the questions raised, the likelihood an answer is slim.
Picasso’s The Dance, (See Fig. 14) is opposite. Three dancers appear frantic: one is doubled over and seems to have a ‘hole,' actually the space between the trunk and the arm. The right hand of the central dominating dancer extends to the other who is partly white and partly black. Kloss considers both paintings a reflection of emotion and sexuality and views Picasso’s painting as release of emotion, (Kloss, William).
In conclusion, the movements discussed in this essay clarified that modernity and change was the ultimate path to freedom. Throughout time, society has developed new ideas with most based on past experiences. Despite the movements being different in some ways, all share universal success in telling how art has evolved with society.
Works Cited
"Met Audio Guide Online." The Metropolitan Museum Of Art, I.E. The Met Museum, 2017, https://www.metmuseum.org/.
Harris, Jonathan. Art History: The Key Concepts. 1st ed., New York, Routledge, 2006,.
Kloss, William. A History Of European Art: Course Guidebook. Chantilly, The Great Courses, 2005,.
Getlein, Mark. Living With Art: Tenth Edition. 10th ed., New York, Mcgraw-Hill Higher Education, 2012,.
"The Art Story: Modern Art Movements, Artists, Ideas, And Topics." The Art Story, 2017, http://www.theartstory.org/.
Visual Slide Summary
Figure 4: Théodore Géricault. French, 1791–1824.
Raft of the Medusa, 1818-19. Oil on canvas, 491 x 716 cm. Collection of Musée du Louvre. © 2007 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / Paris.
Figure 3: Eugène Delacroix. French, 1798–1863.
Massacres of Chios 1834. Oil on canvas, (419 x 354 cm). Collection of Musée du Louvre. © 2007 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / Paris.
Figure 2: Jacques-Louis David. French, 1748–1825.
The Oath of the Horatii 1784. Oil on canvas, 329.8 cm × 424.8 cm (129.8 in × 167.2 in) Collection of Musée du Louvre. © 2007 Artists Rights Society (ARS), Paris.
Figure 1: Jean Antoine Houdon. French, 1741–1828.
Benjamin Franklin 1778. Marble, 17 1/2 in. (44.5 cm). Gift of John Bard. © 2007 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / Paris.
Figure 5: Gustave Courbet. French, 1819–1877.
Burial at Ornans, 1849. Oil on canvas, (419 x 354 cm). Collection of Musee d'Orsay, Paris. © 2007 Artists Rights Society (ARS), Paris.
Figure 6: Gustave Courbet. French, 1814–1875.
Burial at Ornans, 1857. Oil on canvas, (419 x 354 cm). Collection of Musee d'Orsay, Paris. © 2007 Artists Rights Society (ARS), Paris.
Figure 7: Edouard Manet. French, 1814–1875. Le déjeuner sur l'herbe, 1863. Oil on canvas, (208 x 265 cm). Collection of Musee d'Orsay, Paris. © 2007 Artists Rights Society (ARS), Paris.
Figure 8: Claude Monet. French, 1840–1926. Garden at Sainte-Adresse, 1867. Oil on canvas, 98.1 cm × 129.9 cm (38 5/8 in × 51 1/8 in). Collection of Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. © 2007 Artists Rights Society (ARS), Paris/ New York.
Figure 9: Georges Seurat. French, 1859–1891. A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte, 1884. Oil on canvas, 27 3/4 x 41 in. (70.5 x 104.1 cm). Collection of Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. © 2007 Artists Rights Society (ARS), Paris/ New York.
Figure 11: Marcel Duchamp. French, 1887–1968.
Nude Descending A Staircase 1912. Oil on canvas, (147 x 89.2 cm). Philadelphia Museum of Art: Collection of Louise and Walter Arenberg. © 2010 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / Paris.
Figure 10: Paul Gauguin. French, 1843–1903.
The Seed of the Areoi 1834. Oil on burlap, 36 1/4 x 28 3/8" (92.1 x 72.1 cm). Collection of Musée du Louvre. © 2012 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / Paris.
Figure 12: Ernst Ludwig Kirchner. German, 1880–1938. Self-portrait as a Soldier 1915. Oil on canvas, (27.25 × 24 in (69.2 × 61 cm) Collection of Allen Memorial Art Museum, Oberlin College, Charles F. Olney Fund, 1950 © 2007 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / Paris.
Figure 14: Pablo Picasso. French, 1881–1973.
The Three Dancers 1925. Oil on canvas, (419 x 354 cm). Collection of Tate Art Museum, Florence Fox Bequest, and Contemporary Art Society 1965.
Figure 13: René Magritte. L’assassin menacé (The Menaced Assassin). 1927. Oil on canvas, 59 1/4″ x 6′ 4 7/8″ (150.4 x 195.2 cm). The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Kay Sage Tanguy Fund. © Charly Herscovici—ADAGP—ARS, 2013
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