About Child Development

Child growth refers to the process by which a child ages from infancy to adulthood. Physical, emotional, psychological, and cognitive development are all facets of growth and development. Child growth is primarily concerned with the changes that occur in a child as he or she matures from childhood to early adulthood. During this time, a child transitions from relying on their parents to growing independence. This mechanism can be affected by genetic influences as well as the world in which a child grows up. Monitoring child development is very important so as to understand the healthy growth of a child and ensure that they are meeting necessary support to allow for proper development. It also helps in providing for attention to any problem that might be detected at an early age. Many problems can be experienced at this stage and these challenges are mostly due to genetics and prenatal and lack of exposure to a good environment.

Social Cognition

Social cognition is the way children perceive, remember and use the information acquired to in a social context, children who can understand other people’s motives, emotions, feelings, and desires are known to have high ability to describe and even predict other people’s mental states. Young children not only grow physically but they also acquire knowledge and advance in their skills in observing and making interaction with the people around them. There is also a tremendous growth in how they process information and its storage. It will help them know how to react and respond to other people action and be more cooperative in the social environment. At the age of 2-6 years the developmental growth is quite slower than during infancy stage, children at this stage can talk using long sentences but they have developed listening skills and can listen keenly to interesting stories (Cole, 320). This is a period where most of their concerns is in the world and they can develop a lot of theories about what is in the surrounding and ask questions to get clarity. They cannot concentrate for a long period of time on the activity they are

doing rather wander in the conversation and might engage in other activities. There is increased use of language at this stage.

Perception

Social perception is a known element of psychology which is concerned about how information towards other people is processed. It is a concern with the social processing of the information when we see other people, on the view, are interpreted and how the interpretation affects other people. Perception of adults towards the world differs much from the way children view the world, according to Piaget the children view the world as a state of flux and there is nothing permanent. Children between age 2-6 years has developed skills of perception (Hetherington 250).

Information Taking

Social information processing in young children shows how children developed cognitively. Children during this period of time develop skills which help them recall old information, recognize the information encountered and even reconstruct the information is present. Examples a four-year-old can remember what she did on Christmas what she ate and can narrate the whole story to other children when she is back to pre-school after the holiday. Between the ages of 2 to 5 years, most children develop a long-term memory and this shows that even old people, can recall anything in their early years prior to age 2-3 years.at 5-7 years children have advanced in their long-term memory and have learned to use their cognitive ability for specific purposes (Plomin 108). They have learned to pay attention and memorize a list of words; they also develop an ability to choose a strategy of accomplishing a given task. At this period of time, most of the children realize that they can control their brain and can accomplish mental tasks.

Recursive Thinking

Recursive thinking is a process in which a child can solve larger problems by breaking them down into small and simpler problems. Development of recursive thinking is easier during childhood years and the child is able to make his voice heard and handle more complex situations. At this period of time a child realizes that she can make her decision and solve the problems she encounters, she is able to identify easier ways of handling such situations.

Perspective Thinking

Social perspective taking involves skills that are rooted in mind and it is generally about the theory of mind. These skills enable children to understand the mental status of other people. In early years children learn to develop self -control and their reaction towards other people. In a research children who have strong self-control are more successful in school. According to Piaget's preoperational stage, through play and interaction, a cognitive-development perspective of young children and thought process advances. At this stage, children show an ability of impressive representational thinking but cannot handle a complex situation. This appears in young children between age 2-6 and it is based on a vivid leap and use of illustrative philosophy that aids kids to use dialect when interacting with others.

Moral Development and Reasoning

Moral development is the change, appearance, and comprehension of ideas of morality from childhood to adolescence. Morality can be established both positively and negatively basing on how a person completes the task at any of the stages of ethical improvement during their life. Kohlberg was a psychologist who came up with the six stages of moral development. He appears more detailed in his description of children moral development and he categorized it into three levels. These stages include pre-conventional, conventional level, and the post-conventional level.

In the early years of 2 to 5 years children start to show morally based behaviors and respect to the societal beliefs, children believe that obeying rules is very important to avoid punishment. The children here are at the pre-conventional stage, this phase is considered pre-conventional because children have no voice in the society but their full respect is on their elders. It is the stage where they believe that authoritative figures such as their parents and teachers have rules and they should follow. Rules are seen to be real and cannot be changed and there are consequences for breaking the rules. This level has two stages and the first stage is about obedience and punishment, children here grow up believing that being good helps one to avoid being punished (Plomin 115). They believe that wrongdoing is punished and right actions are being rewarded. Children at this stage are obedient and they tend to observe rules to avoid being punished. Their reasoning is however majorly based on physical consequences of their action as they are not able to understand other people feelings or needs. The motive that good behaviors are being praised propels them to act in a certain way (Whitehurst 845).

The second stage at this level describes the individualism and exchange, behavior acquired here depends on receiving the reward that will make them satisfy their needs. Children at this stage are too emotional and they develop more interest and value towards themselves. They are not up to making right actions to avoid punishment just like in the first stage, however, their right actions consists of what will satisfy their own needs. At this period a child realizes that she has her own rights and not only to obey rules from his elders. Egocentrism developed she can exchange blows and favors, she only pursues what can benefit her or anything that will make her avoid punishment. Children here believe that vengeance is moral because she can use it to satisfy her own desires, for example, if a child hit another then the other can retaliate and hit back. Children will begin to make deals with others to behave in a certain way if she will get back a favor, “I will do this if you will do this” (Cole 329).

At this time they recognize that others too have their own desires and needs, they are very concern and they value being fair in everything they do to others. They are keen on how they serve other individual need since how they attend to other’s need is taken into account and might ruin their relationship. The relationship between children here are strong and the bond only strengthens if they are treating themselves nicely, that is if both are them are benefiting from the friendship. Moral reasoning at this stage, however, is greatly based on the perception of the reward that one gets and the power of their authoritative figures.

Stage three of the Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning is a stage that few children of 10 years reach, this is because different children have different growth rate. This is the second level of moral reasoning as per the Kohlberg's theory, conventional level this is level consist of two stages which is stage three and four. In the first stage which is about an interpersonal relationship, here the children behave with aim of getting approval from their peers. This is the stage where it is commonly referred to as good boy and good girl stage; they believe and understand the concept of trust loyalty and gratitude. They are morally good and tend to behave well around other people. The fourth stage is about law and order and this is the stage that children realize that there are rules in the society which needs to be followed. They realize that they are obliged to abide by these laws and show respect to the authority. Child focus has shifted to society at large and their moral behavior is directed to the society (Cole 328). Emotions are developed from the interaction with the people around them, children believe that they should respect the people in the society however they also consider their own feelings. At this stage, children behave nicely and can be trusted in whatever they do as they believe in trustworthy. The last stage of Kohlberg's theory is posted conventional and it is only reached by few adults and many people do not reach this step and therefore it is not experienced in early years.

Emotional Development

Emotional problems are common in children and adolescents and it affects most of the school-age population. Most of the behavioral disorders, however, are associated with family genes, family, and school environment. Development of these disorders in children can be characterized by delayed speech and language, delayed motor functions because of underdeveloped gross and motor skills. Bipolar is a disorder that affects the brain and causes extreme changes in moods of a person, thinking, energy and behavior. Although bipolar is often thought to be a disorder that affects adults only, research shows that bipolar appear in childhood or in early adolescence. The disorder is quite different in young people and possibly even more severe. However, recognizing the diseases in younger people is challenging because its symptoms appear same as to that of any condition in early childhood. These conditions include anxiety disorder, conduct disorder, mood swings and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (Hetherington 252). These are conditions common in early years to middle adolescents. People suffering from bipolar often experience extreme changes in their moods commonly known as mood swings. Bipolar is characterized by recurrent episodes of depressions, mania or mixed symptoms states. The child experiences extreme talking, distractibility, hyper-sexuality, engaging in more risky behaviors, decreased the need for sleep and increased energy.

Depression

Depression in children and adolescents is often recurrent and continues all the way to adulthood. Depression if not dealt with can affect the whole of person’s life, a prevalence of depression in children have has been estimated to around 1% and around 3% in young adults. Depression is a mood disorder that can take away joy from the life of a child (Hetherington 254). It is normal for a child to feel sad or moody whenever anything bad happens, example if she loses her pet but if the feeling persists then this can cause depression in a child. Just like bipolar, depression cannot easily be recognized because it manifests itself differently in children than in adults.

Depression can interfere with child’s ability to relate to others because the child feels out of the place when with others. It can also affect child performance in school if it goes unnoticed. It is, however, a treatable condition, and can be treated through psychotherapy and medication it is sometimes difficult because sometimes children and adolescent do not have the emotional and intellectual maturity to deal with depression instead feel moody and feel bothered by everyone. At this period they can even engage in fights to release their emotions, the can respond to minor provocation with a lot of anger and outburst. Their parents should, therefore, offer much support to their children during this period of time, to help them manage their stress to avoid being depressed.

Anxiety

Anxiety refers to the response of the brain to the danger, and stimulates an organism which will attempt to avoid. Childhood and adolescence is the main phase for the development of anxiety, this disorder is an ordinary feeling and most individuals experience this feeling at a specific point of time their lives. Anxiety, however, may develop to an extent where it can affect the daily life of a person. It can cause insomnia and may affect school performance of a child. Anxiety can lead to a serious mental health conditions that can require proper treatment. A child who exhibits this disorder is commonly hyper-vigilant and is able to scan both internal and external environment. Physical symptoms of this disorder include headaches, chest pain, and abdominal pains it can also cause cognitive symptoms such as worrying about future. Parents and caregivers should talk with the child’s doctors and give the child by offering them proper support (Whitehurst 850).

Conduct Disorder

Currently, the conduct disorder in children and adolescents is a prevalent report that is being reported to most child health professionals. Conduct disorder simply implies to a group of emotional and behavioral complications in young kids and teenagers, at this point they have problems in behaving well and obeying specified rules. Brain damage, child abuse, negligence, school failure and genetic factors contribute to developing of conduct disorders in young children and adolescents. Children with these disorder exhibit behaviors such as bullying, engage in physical fights and can also engage in risky activities. A child can develop disruptive behavior disorder which is known as oppositional defiant disorder, it is characterized by signs of being hostile. This disorder starts as early as preschool years before it advances into a conduct behavior (Plomin 113).

This disorder can subject the child to depression, academic difficulties and can develop a poor relationship with their peers. Children who exhibit these behaviors should be given comprehensive evaluation by the mental health professionals. Though management of this disorder can be challenging since it depends on the child’s attitude, fears and distrust of adults, teachers, and caregivers should, therefore, source the psychiatrist with the information about the child condition. The psychotherapy mostly aims at helping the child to control his anger and appropriately express his emotions. Proper care should be enhanced the healthy and proper growth of young children.

Trends of Self-Concepts

The emergence of positive self-concepts is an aspect which is developed from the social and emotional development of a child. Child self-concept is commonly associated with child temperaments, parenting styles, and family interaction. When a child comes to understand themselves they get a guide for their relationship with their peers as well as their own behaviors. Such early self-concept of children reflects the child personality which is developing. Pre-scholars are at this period are able to see themselves as unique individuals, their mental image about themselves is concentrated more on their names, age, sex and possessions and their abilities. At this age the child is also able to describe his emotions using simple terms, however, children only get the ability to explain their traits when they are school age. 6 to 8 years children are considered to be developing rapidly in terms of skills and mastering different skills, at this time the child is able to describe himself physically, he can say “ I am big boy’’. They often reply to their questions using observable characteristics and abilities (plomin 118)

Erickson’s Theory

Erickson a psychologist developed stages psychosocial development, just like Sigmund Freud he believes d that personality is developed in series of stages. He explains the impact of social interaction and social experience across the life of a child. Erickson was interested in how children socialize and how it affects their perception towards themselves. He categorized his theory into eight distinct stages of psychosocial development. According to the theory upon successful completion this stages it results to the development of a healthy personality and good interaction with their peers (Hetherington, 854). Failure to successfully complete the earlier stages it may lead to a decreased ability to develop well in other stages and this lead to lack of sense of self and poor personality. According to Erickson theory, much focus is based on child development and the development of personality and early experiences.

Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt

Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erickson of psychosocial development; it focuses on how a child develops a stronger sense of personal control. At this time children have started gaining independence and they start performing some chores and making simple decisions. When caregivers and parents allow children to perform simpler tasks and make choices of what they prefer, they give chance to develop a sense of autonomy. The critical part of this process of psychosocial development is toilet training, Erickson believed that when a child is able to control how her body functions then he developed since independence and feel she can control himself. At this time children can make simple decisions such as choosing which they like, toys and even clothes. Children who successfully complete this stage tend to develop a sense of security and confidence, but those who fail to complete this stage successfully are left with a sense of inadequacy and fill with self-doubt.

Initiative versus Quilt

Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erickson theory of psychosocial development, this stage is experienced in an age of 3-5 years (Hetherington 255). During this period children realize who they are through play interaction and self-expression, however, criticism can lead to a se4nse of the quilt being developed. During this period children develop a desire to copy adults around them and they develop a sense of competence when they successfully accomplish the duty. Children at this stage believe that they can accomplish given tasks by themselves and failure to accomplish the task, or ask for assistance from their peers or caregivers they feel intimidated and they may feel a sense of guilt.

Intimacy versus Isolation

Intimacy versus isolation is a sixth psychosocial phase of Erickson’s theory, this stage is marked by an attempt to find intimacy with others. This stage covers the early adulthood of children when children are building their personal relationship with others. Erickson believes that it was necessary for people to develop close and a committed bond with other people. This will enhance the development of personal identity, which helps them to develop a more intimate relationship. Successful completion of this stage will lead to the quality of love, which is often clear from one’s capability to build a strong and long-lasting relationship with peers and other people. However, failure to complete this stage successfully will lead to a poor sense of self and those who fail to complete this phase tend to have less commitment in a relationship and can suffer emotional isolation, depression, and even loneliness.

Integrity versus Despair

Integrity versus despair is also a vital phase in theory of psychosocial development; it is a stage which describes a tendency to reflect back in life. It occurs at old age, at this point, people look back in their lives and determine whether they are living a good life or if they are regretting about things they do or they did not. Those who are not successful feel regret that they never accomplish some various things in their life such people will be left with a feeling of bitterness and despair. Those who achieve many things in their life or feel that they have accomplished whatever they were targeting feel a sense of integrity as they are fully satisfied with their accomplishments.

Theoretical perspectives of Intelligence

Intelligence is a component psychology that impacts on how a person behaves and how he or establishes a relationship with other people. Charles Spearman was a psychologist who pursued a doctorate in experimental psychology. He projected his experimental concept of aptitude called the two-factor theory. According to Charles Spearman, he believed that intelligent capacities comprise of two features namely general capacity which is known as G- factor and another specific capacity known as S-factors. The sum of G-factor and S-factor performance of individual shows the total intelligence of a person. So every performance rests on the G factor (general capacity) and the S factor or specific capacity. G-factor shows the innate intellect and it is responsible for the response we make to any situation or intellectual tasks and but the specific ability is responsible for the rest tasks that we engage in. Abilities such as drawing inferences, coding messages and even completing sentences are specific tasks. Different people differ in their abilities both G and S factors, and this is the reason why people have a different level of intelligence.

Raymond Cattell way back in 1963 came up with two different types of intelligence, he then took a step to identify and study these types of intelligence. His first type of intelligence he came up with is Fluid intelligence, he defined this as the capability to resolve or handle upcoming issues, ascertain forms and utilize sense in novel circumstances. He gave an example of using a complex subway system in a new city; this is the situation where this fluid intelligence can be applied. First one needs to mark the new names of the stops she or he needs to make like street names, which vehicle will take him there and the turns he makes before reaching the place. Crystallized intelligence this is the ability to apply learned knowledge and experience. This is the knowledge that is applied mostly to school when learning a new language or even solving different questions this knowledge is being used. When learning a new thing one start with fluid knowledge but once the task is learned one depends on crystallized intelligence (Cole, 330).

The theory of numerous intelligences was established by Dr. Howard Gardner, a professor of Harvard University. Gardner proposed eight ways of human intelligence that people of how they process information. First of this is about verbal-linguistic intelligence, this is about how individuals process information and analyze it, and produce it in form of a written work, logical-mathematical intelligence describes an ability to develop proofs, equation and solve calculation. Visual-spatial enables people to comprehend maps, locations and even to interpret graphs. Musical intelligence gives an individual ability to produce and make different types of sounds, and the other type of intelligence which gives an individual ability to identify and differentiate types of animal, plants, weather information and other natural world is Naturalistic intelligence. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence enables one to solve problems in every situation, interpersonal intelligence is the ability of a person to identify and comprehend the intentions and moods of other people. It also denotes their capacity to associate with the people who share same characteristics.

Nature and nurture are concerned about a particular aspect of behavior is either acquired or learned or inherited. Nature is anything we think of as pre-wiring and it is subjective to many organic features such as such as genetic heritage. Nature however is a stimulus of external factors after the conception and it is, therefore, a product of being exposed, experience, and knowledge acquired by an individual. It explains why most of the physical characteristics are biologically determined; such characteristic includes skin pigmentation, a color of the eyes, height, and weight (Whitehurst 865). Lifespan and vulnerability to certain illnesses like cancer are considered genetically related. People who take most of the hereditary positions are referred to nativist. This tries to explain how genetic predisposition and environment affect mental ability of an individual. The nurture effect, however, has more impact on the life of an individual than nature and many problems that adults faces are associated with the nurture, the early home life that a person lived. However, most of the psychological characteristics and differences in behavior that are exhibited in early years are a result of learning.

The most common way of assessing intelligence is through IQ testing, there are however various ways of assessing the IQ of an individual. IQ scores have however increased at the rate in the last decades since the twentieth century in most parts of the world. The increased scores as per Flynn effect is due to many factors such as nutrition, a trend of smaller families hence easy to keep and provide leading to a healthy and stress-free marriage, better education and a more being in the healthy and friendly environment. Modern education is considered the most influential thing that has led to improvement in the IQ rendering higher scores.































Works Cited

Cole, Pamela M., Sarah E. Martin, and Tracy A. Dennis. "Emotion regulation as a scientific

construct: Methodological challenges and directions for child development research."

Child development 75.2 (2004): 317-333.

Hetherington, Eileen Mavis, Ross D. Parke, and Virginia Otis Locke. Child psychology: A contemporary viewpoint. McGraw-Hill, 1999.

Plomin, Robert. "Child development and molecular genetics: 14 years later." Child Development 84.1 (2013): 104-120.

Whitehurst, Graver J., and Christopher J. Lonigan. "Child development and emergent literacy." Child development 69.3 (1998): 848-872.