The experiences of Jewish women in the Holocaust has, for a long time, been overlookeddeserted [A1] for a gender-neutral narrative or male-dominated expression of the Jewish genocide imposed on the Jewish population. Many scholars have been skeptical over a gendered study on the Holocaust – this skepticism has, however, been challenged by several women’s narrations, which retell the wretched executions and maltreatment of women during the mass murder. Women survivors, especially female artists, express their encounters in form of ironic drawings and art pieces in a bid to raise academic attention towards a gendered study on the Holocaust. but narration by Women who experienced the tragedy [A2] has revealed differentiated experiences that deserve academic attention. The specific struggles of women in the Holocaust have largely been invisible in major studies thus denying them recognition for their valor by resiliently overcoming anti-Semitism[A3] . Greater focus on the diverse experiences in the Holocaust will lead to intensive insights into the life in ghettoes and detention camps. This thesis will delve into the struggles unique to the female gender during the Holocaust, focusing on the increased extremities of the annihilation practices meted out on women compared to their male counterparts, in a bid to deter further conception of more Jewish children. Chapter 1change of roles and how they lost their femininity [A4] as demonstrated by the art expressions in this period. The first chapter gives a general outline of the Holocaust crisis and other pertinent features such as the Germany takeover by the Nazi, the establishment of concentration camps during the Holocaust, and a brief insight of the roles of men and women during the World War Two. n account of the
Holocaust by focusing on the instigators of the anti-Semitism and the change of gender roles as influenced by hardships in Ghettoes and concentration camps. Chapter 2 two of this dissertation focuses on the stature and position of women in the Nazi ghettos, as expressed in Esther Lurie’s artwork, while Chapter 3 discusses the stature and position of women in the concentration camps, as expressed in Ella Lieberman’s artwork. Chapter 4 analyzes the reception and response to Esther Lurie’s and Ella Lieberman’s art pieces, by the present-day society, and delineates how this art serves to expand a gendered study of women’s experiences during the Holocaust crisis.
The position of women in nazi Germany and in concentration campsstature of women in terms of social status in the concentration camps. Chapter three and four of the research investigates the art pieces and artists delving into how women are enunciated as heroes [A5] of the Holocaust. This dissertation will in a significant way demonstrate the gaps in Holocaust research that denies women a central role in the struggle to survive amidst againsta radicalized anti-Semitism.[A6]
Introduction
This thesis evaluates the role of women prevalent during the humanity crimesduring the holocaust, through the artistic lens of two prominent female artists namely committed during the period of the holocaust. paper analyzes the artistic works of two female artists, Esther Lurie and Ella Liebermann. , in a quest to explore the role of women and their historical trauma during the holocaust. In similar thoughts to Kalmanowitz and Lloyd (1999), the paper is based on the premise that as caring citizens, the present generation is bestowed with the responsibility of witnessing the past as a way of preventing future occurrences of trauma. The paper draws on the essence of art, which has been used as a communication tool to remind the world of the need to protect humanity against the dangerous ideologies as regards a racial superiority.[A7]
The Holocaust art can be classified according to the status of the artist during the genocide, which can be a prisoner, liberator, non-participant or a survivor (Hayes et al. 46). The artist goal can be inspired by testimonies from the eyewitnesses or because of memorable moments by a victim. The major styles that are used by the artists include surrealism, expressionism, and realism. In essence, the defiance by the artists in drawing their pieces was for evidential purposes to report their encounter in the camps through the murderous activities of the Nazis (Hayes et al. 42). Art gave the prisoners motivation to hope for the future through resistance to the continued dehumanization by the SS.
The inmates living in the Ghettoes and camps used Holocaust as a theme in their art while others used it as a therapy that was critical in helping them remember the lost hopes. Nonetheless, the liberator's art was objective because it exemplified the images they saw as the eyewitnesses. Other Jews used their art to define their original identity with the Judaism culture (Goldenberg et al. 23). Siblings of the Holocaust survivors are important contributors to the art as they reflect on the suffering of their parents. The motifs of the Holocaust art consist of corpse's images, barbed wire, and pictures of starving Jews. Another common symbol that has been used repeatedly in the art is the crematorium chimneys. Holocaust art, in a fundamental way, tries to ignite moral questions that are related to the subject of the genocide (Elizabeth 45). The Nazis in Holocaust arts in a surrealist portrayal they are viewed as devils or monsters that did not have regard for the sanctity or dignity of human life.
The works of two artists have been explored in this section. Particular interest is given to Esther Lurie as a survivor of the Kovno Ghetto and an award winner of the Dizengoff Prize for a portrait she did while at the Ghetto. Ella Liebermann-Shiber is considered for the artistry she did[A8] in the Auschwitz concentration camp and as an award winner of the certificate of merit given to her by Israeli's first lady for the great contribution she made to the remembrance of the Holocaust.
As Rosenberg (1) emphasizes, the stories and struggles of women in the holocaust is still overlooked, and not heeded any substantial academic recognition, due to the generalization of dominant male experiences during the crisis. Therefore, this dissertation emerges amidst this literature gap to highlight the role of women during the holocaust, through an evaluation of the female artwork. The thesis will reflect on the women’s adaptation of the hard life in the ghettoes and camps as well as their social patterns of survival that helped secure food and their children while at the same time maintaining their identity.
Problem Statement
The current literature on Holocaust denies women a prominent position as survivors of the anti-Semitism ideology in Germanyheroes during the struggle. The inclusive account on the anti-Jewish genocide Jews genocide should include the unique challenges that women overcame to survive before they were rescued. Aspects of revisionism of the Holocaust research are necessary to engender them with the necessary reality of the concentration camps and ghettoes that amplify the feminine victimization that is has been omitted intentionally because of adopting a male narrative. This thesis will delve into the experiences of women during the Holocaust focusing on the change of roles and how they lost their femininity as demonstrated by the art expressions in this period.This thesis will delve into the struggles unique to the female gender during the Holocaust, focusing on the increased extremities of the annihilation practices meted out on women compared to their male counterparts.
Research Objectives
Tto
acknowledge the experiences encountered by the victims of the holocaust as a result of the anti-Semitism ideology in Germany.
· understand the unique experiences of Jewish women in the Holocaust period as a result of their socialization, physiology and the reality in the labor and extermination camps.
Tto analyze the artworks by women on the subject of Holocaust and their unique aspects with regard to their experiences in the ghetto and es and detention camps.
Tto study the change of gender roles among the Jewish women under the Nazis.
Tto explain the impact of Holocaust arts created by women in modern society.
Tto interpret trace the influence of Holocaust art on women`s stature in modern society.
Significance of the Research
A major focus of this research paper is how art was used as an escape by women of the Jewish community to narrate their story about the annihilation during the Holocaust.[A9] This research will help in offering an academic alternative from the common perspective in the study of Holocaust that is dominated by male narratives. Rosenberg (1) Ofer and Weitzman (57) contcontend that gender studies on the holocaust help in understanding the coping mechanisms employed by the survivors in comprehensive research of the Holocaust victims. The current study will unravel the uniqueness of the women’`s memory of the Holocaust,
through the art pieces work created by eyewitnesses of the tragic events. The exploration of literature on the Holocaust will reveal the advantages that women had that increased their chances of survival and avoid being victims of the Final Solution.
Introduction
This paper analyzes the artistic works of two female artists, Esther Lurie and Ella Liebermann, in a quest to explore the role of women and their historical trauma during the holocaust. In similar thoughts to Kalmanowitz and Lloyd (1999), the paper is based on the premise that as caring citizens, the present generation is bestowed with the responsibility of witnessing the past as a way of preventing future occurrences of trauma. The paper draws on the essence of art, whichArt h has been used as a communication tool to remind the world of the need to protect humanity against the dangerous ideologies as regards a racial superiority.[A10]
The Holocaust art can be classified according to the status of the artist during the genocide, which can be a prisoner, liberator, non-participant or a survivor (Hayes et al. 46). The artist goal can be inspired by testimonies from the eyewitnesses or because of memorable moments by a victim. The major styles that are used by the artists include surrealism, expressionism, and realism. In essence, the defiance by the artists in drawing their pieces was for evidential purposes to report their encounter in the camps through the murderous activities of the Nazis (Hayes et al. 42). Art gave the prisoners motivation to hope for the future through resistance to the continued dehumanization by the SS.
The inmates living in the Ghettoes and camps used Holocaust as a theme in their art while others used it as a therapy that was critical in helping them remember the lost hopes. Nonetheless, the liberator's art was objective because it exemplified the images they saw as the eyewitnesses. Other Jews used their art to define their original identity with the Judaism culture (Goldenberg et al. 23). Siblings of the Holocaust survivors are important contributors to the art as they reflect on the suffering of their parents. The motifs of the Holocaust art consist of corpse's images, barbed wire, and pictures of starving Jews. Another common symbol that has been used repeatedly in the art is the crematorium chimneys. Holocaust art, in a fundamental way, tries to ignite moral questions that are related to the subject of the genocide (Elizabeth 45). The Nazis in Holocaust arts in a surrealist portrayal they are viewed as devils or monsters that did not have regard for the sanctity or dignity of human life.
The works of two artists have been explored in this section. Particular interest is given to Esther Lurie as a survivor of the Kovno Ghetto and an award winner of the Dizengoff Prize for a portrait she did while at the Ghetto. Ella Liebermann-Shiber is considered for the artistry she did[A11] in the Auschwitz concentration camp and as an award winner of the certificate of merit given to her by Israeli's first lady for the great contribution she made to the remembrance of the Holocaust.
This paper analyzes the artistic works
of two female artists, Esther Lurie and Ella
Liebermann, in a quest to -Shiber to explore the role of women and theirtheme of historical trauma during the while underpinning the role of women during the Hholocaust. In similar thoughts to Kalmanowitz and Lloyd (1999), the paper is based on the premise that as caring citizens, the present generation is bestowed with the responsibility of witnessing the past as a way of preventing future occurrences of trauma.
As Rosenberg (1) emphasizes,While there are wider definitions, this paper perceives the holocaust as a systematic state-sponsored mass killing campaign coordinated by Hitler and perpetrated by the Nazis and their collaborators whose outcomes were the extermination of 11 six million Jews[A12] people, whom were considered socially unfit for the German society. The number of Jews who were annihilated were about 6 million.
Rochelle and Brutin (9) state that the . The Jews were looked at as sub-humans with no right to live Rochelle and Brutin (p.9). Both male and female Jews were annihilated during the Holocaust; however, both genders However in this general population of the Jews, men and women had different experiences altogether. as argued by Rochelle and Brutin (p.9).As Kaplan (52) explains, more women, than men, were picked out for deportation to death camps, where they were exterminated in gas chambers. Usually, the German SS and police officials arrested Jews and deported them to concentration camps, where they subjected them to forced labor and starvation. However, the women’s verdicts were harsher as they were immediately dispatched to killing centers, for death by gassing, as soon as they were identified to be pregnant or mothers to young infants. Rosenberg (4) further adds that women were more vulnerable to death during the holocaust, than men, because were considered a weak gender and, thus, unfit for work. For this reason, the German SS saw no need in retaining the women as they already had more than enough human labor from men. The women in the concentration camps, on the other hand, withstood sexual slavery, forced abortions, massacres of newborn infants, and disunion from their children (Presiado 421). All these perpetrations were carried out in a bid to prevent the women from giving birth to, or raising, any other Jewish generations.
Despite all these victimizations, many women survived the holocaust and live to witness their encounters to the present-day society. As Ringelheim (350)[A13] () asserts, women had shrewd survival skills such as forming astute relationships with other fellow women during workhours and sharing food amongst themselves. Evidence from studies by feminist scholars reveal that women morphed into social groups as a copying strategy which was effective compared to their male counterparts who were lone-rangers (Goldenberg et al. 29). Sybil Milton reports that, “Women were better able to survive starvation than men. They had better strategies for sharing and extending food” (Brozan 3). Also, women had more resilience and determination to subsist through the ghastly experience, and come out alive. For instance, Suzanne Donner recalls the excruciating trek they had to make from Belgium to Northern France, and reports that, “My father and brother had bloody feet; my mother and I encouraged them to walk” (Brozan 2). Nevertheless, the stories and struggles of women in the holocaust is still overlooked, and not heeded any substantial academic recognition, due to the And as seen in artistic representation, it is evident that different atrocities were committed against the Jews by the SS. This is not only demonstrated by the artworks of artists but by their confessions and accompanying statements.
Portraits carried a mystical connotation in the concentration camps, they accorded the subjects a sense of long-lasting presence among the living at a time when physical presence appeared tenuous and fragile (Milton 1981 p.30). Weber 2008 argues that portraits enable the audience to empathize with the humanity of the subject and adopt the gaze of the artist while connecting the present and the past. Therefore portraiture is considered an important artistic subject for the analysis of transgenerational transference of trauma and linking with the lived encounter of the artist. Speaking of art during the Holocaust.It appears that the cruelty[A14] , the horror and the sufferings during the mass killing are more than art can handle (Toll, 2017 p.5). In fact, the creative impulse of the artists seemed to supersede all the mental, physical and aesthetic challenges. During such difficult times, artistic activity is considered a unique phenomenon because it occurred under harsh conditions of the oppression and isolation of the mind and the body. As argued by Blatter and Milton (1981), the creative urge of the artists during such times was more intense compared to their fear of death. Lurie is quoted saying that “everything that took place around them was so different and strange from any practice and concept in the life of the artist. She was motivated by the desire to draw things as she experienced them.” (Lurie[A15] , 1958, p. 7).
History takes note of the fact that images and art have shaped the way individuals express what remains beyond verbal communication and words. Toll (argues that visual art links personal experience to wider theory . Lynn (2010[A16] ) contends that visual art inquiry helps to reveal how and why a study of an individual can resonate with many others (p.165).
The inspiration for this exploratory study on women roles in Holocaust is informed by the generalization of dominant male experiences during the crisis.
Therefore, this dissertation emerges amidst this literature gap to highlight the role of women during the holocaust, through an evaluation of the two female artworkists’ works. to the detriment of women that played an essential role during the Holocaust. The thesis will reflect on the women’s adaptation of the hard life in the ghettoes and camps as well as their social patterns of survival that helped secure food and their children while at the same time maintaining their identity. responsibilities of women within the domestic set-up played a critical role in determining their adaptation in the hard life in the ghettoes and camps. Men`s adaptation mechanism to the Holocaust environment made them have least chances of survival because they were individualistic, survivalist and largely, independent (Burger 22). [A17] This dissertation will explore the social patterns of survival that women developed in the camps that helped secure food and their children while at the same time maintaining their identity. Evidence from studies by feminist scholars reveal that women morphed into social groups as a copying strategy which was effective compared to their male counterparts who were lone-rangers (Goldenberg et al 29). Particularly, women provided social aid to the entire community as it will be revealed in the second chapter of this research paper. Testimonies from the survivors of the Holocaust account for more communal associations for women compared to men (Ringelheim 350).[A18]
Chapter 1One: The Holocaust
World War Two General
1.1 Introduction
Chapter 1 basically introduces the concept of the holocaust and outlines the general ideologies attached to the holocaust or Shoah development. The chapter also discusses other pertinent topics such as the role of women versus men during the holocaust period.
1.2 The Holocaust and Associated Ideologies
While there are wider definitions, this paper perceives the holocaust as a systematic state-sponsored mass killing campaign coordinated by Hitler and perpetrated by the Nazis and their collaborators whose outcomes were the extermination of 11 million people, whom were considered socially unfit for the German society. The Jews liquidated totaled to roughly The number of Jews who were annihilated were about 6 million. Rochelle and Brutin (9) state that the Jews were looked at as sub-humans with no right to live. Both male and female Jews were annihilated during the Holocaust; however, both genders had different experiences altogether. As Kaplan (52) explains, more women, than men, were picked out for deportation to death camps, where they were exterminated in gas chambers. Usually, the German SS and seized police officials arrested Jews and consigned them to various detention sites such as the ghettoes, concentration camps, and killing centers, and exerting maximal abuse and persecution on them. Women’s persecutions were, however, more severe compared to men thanks to the sexual slavery, abortions, rape, and beatings afflicted on women. deported them to concentration camps, where they subjected them to forced labor and starvation. However, the women’s verdicts were harsher as they were immediately dispatched to killing centers, for death by gassing, as soon as they were identified to be pregnant or mothers to young infants. Rosenberg (4) further adds that women were more vulnerable to death during the holocaust, than men, because were considered a weak gender and, thus, unfit for work. For this reason, the German SS saw no need in retaining the women as they already had more than enough human labor from men. The women in the concentration camps, on the other hand, withstood sexual slavery, forced abortions, massacres of newborn infants, and disunion from their children (Presiado 421). All these perpetrations were carried out in a bid to prevent the women from giving birth to, or raising, any other Jewish generations.
Despite all these victimizations, many women survived the holocaust and live to witness their encounters to the present-day society. As Ringelheim (350)[A19] asserts, women had shrewd survival skills such as forming astute relationships with other fellow women during workhours and sharing food amongst themselves. Evidence from studies by feminist scholars reveal that women morphed into social groups as a copying strategy which was effective compared to their male counterparts who were lone-rangers (Goldenberg et al. 29). Sybil Milton reports that, “Women were better able to survive starvation than men. They had better strategies for sharing and extending food” (Brozan 3). Also, women had more resilience and determination to subsist through the ghastly experience, and come out alive. For instance, Suzanne Donner recalls the excruciating trek they had to make from Belgium to Northern France, and reports that, “My father and brother had bloody feet; my mother and I encouraged them to walk” (Brozan 2).
1.3 The Women artists [A20] of Jewish descent, for example Malva Schaleck, Emmy Falck-Ettlinger, Jane Levy, Sylta Busse-Reismann, Sylta Busse-Reismann, Lou Albert-Lazard (Mabull), and Lili Rilik-Andrieux, Esther Lurie, and Ella Liebermann, depicted the communal life events encountered during the holocaust (Rosenberg 3)began their work shortly after the Second World War and the hHolocaust began. Mostly, the drawings and paintings existent today were created by survivorspeople [A21] who had first-hand experience on the hHolocaust events (PresiadoMor 4192). The creative works were as a record of experiences the women underwent and werewas done in all the deportation areas, especially, the death camps and other detention areas. Essentially, the artists represented women from all diversities, but mostany of them were from a Jewish background.
The involvement in creative arts engagement by women was a means for emotional expression and more importantly, as a form of spiritual resistance. Under the command of the German captors, women were forced to create portraits for soldiers’` families. In essence, such commands are exemplified by the drawings ordered by Dr. Mengele, a German physician, during the Holocaust for the people he used as experiments.
The artworks made after the Second World War did not happen under duress, but through encouragement by international organizations as an initiative to document the hHolocaust experiences. Notably, the artistic expressions during and after liberation have commonalities because it was a difficult period adapting to normal life after captivity ofby the Jews (Presiado 420Mor 3). A major focus of this research paper is how art was used as an escape by women to narrate their story about the Jews` community annihilation during the Holocaust.[A22]
Oppressive Time Period
The artwork that promoted German superiority in racial terms were praised by Hitler`s regime. Art, in its real form, is a non-violent way of expressing frustrations in the society, a tool that women exploited perfectly during the hHolocaust. Hitler was elected bestowed [A23] the position of asa Chancellor in 1933 with the hope that he could elevate the country from the economic and political crisis that existednt in this period. The oppressive time started as soon as Hitler was elected [A24] as Chancellor in 1933 with the hope that he could elevate the country from the economic and political crisis that existed in this period. Shortly after, the statutory cabinet invocated several with the invocation of constitutional clauses by the cabinet, under the direct command by Adolf Hitler, to dismantle the country`s dDemocracy. Individual freedoms, free speech, and the right to assemble were suspended and special security organizations were used to maim and kill opposition leaders. Moreover, the Nazis,
in 1933, started amplifying the racial ideology that placed Germans as a superior race in the society engageding in struggles with other inferior groups, such as the Jews (FischerConan, 7). The Gypsies (Roma), Jews, and handicapped people were viewed as an impurity in Germany and had to be exterminated to avoid contamination to the biologically superior race.
The Nazi propaganda targeted the Jews blaming them for the challenges facing the country such as economic depression and the loss of the battle in the 1st
World War. During the oppression period, Jews were hounded out of plum civil service jobs, court positions and in the University, alienating them from the public life (RosemanMark 25). Properties and businesses belonging to the Jews were seized leading to “a Kristallnacht” - a riot organized by the aggrieved people. The persecution was based on an argument by scientists on selective breeding with the aim of improving the human race. The people considered to be inferior were prohibited from intermarrying with "superior" Germans, and were even to the extreme they were sterilized to ensure no familial relationships unfold between them (GilbertMartin 71). Political opponents were arrested together with trade unionists and held captive in concentration camps.[A25]
Pieces of art created by women during the Holocaust were inspired by the need to record the happenings and rarely influenced by aesthetics. However, during the post-war period, art creation was necessitated by the need to respond to the atrocities committed by the Nazi regime. Women artworks[A26] were, thus,was influenced by abstractive images of the tragic events that happened in the concentration camps. Drawing and painting became a major preoccupation to soothe and recast the tragic state of affairs experienced during the embed the emotional pinch [A27] felt during the hHolocaust. Additionally, art was used to communicate a moral message to modern society on the need to protect humanity from rogue characters [A28] amongst the world population. Essentially, in this research paper discussions on the artwork created by women will demonstrate the power of art to narrate emotional [A29] events in the past such as genocide.
1.4 The Ghettos and Concentration Camps
Concentration cCamps in Nazi Germany were established in 1933, before the Second World War was ignited, through the imperial tendencies of Hitler to implement his plans for expansion (Friedlander 37). The camps consisted of different groups of people namely:; prisoners of war, criminals, gypsies, homosexuals, political prisoners, and the mentally disabled. Dachau was the first camp; the number of camps, however, , Germany and the number increased afterward due to the need to quell dissent and eliminate groups considered to be inferior. The camps created by Nazi leadership served as labor concentration locations, transit and collection areas, and places for holding people hostage and exterminating them (Martin, 39). Notably, in labor concentration camps inmates faced malcruel [A30] treatment and hard labor without remuneration. The transit camps acted as collection point before the prisoners were taken to the main camps. Prisoners of war were tortured in the concentration camps and sometimes killed as a form of reprisal. The dreaded camp was Auschwitz, a combination of labor and extermination area located in Poland and with the highest number of inmates’ death records during the hHolocaust (André 31). The inhumane acts by the Nazis were extreme including drug
experimentations, putting people on pressure chambers, and use of poisonous gas. Extermination camps were designed mainly for killing prisoners in large numbers and, furthermore, in these areas the inmates were subjected to hard labor under starvation to the point of their death.
Similar to the concentration camps, tThe ghettoes as concentration areas denied Jews freedom of communication which was integral for their economic wellbeing. A contrasting reality in the ghettoes that was different from the concentration camps is that women in this setting gave more priority to their families more than their female counterparts in the concentration camps, undergoing struggles in their environment (Burger 41). An emergent norm in the ghettoes was formation of women organization to help them cope with the hardships. Women in the ghettoes had lighter jobs such as clerical work, creation of ornaments, repair of clothes and laundry, which was compounded by their domestic duties as caregivers.
Gender roles were mainstreamed in the ghettoes through the creation of Judenrat, which was also referred to as Jewish Council (Burger 29). The council consisted of men of Jewish origin, charged with a mandate of implementing orders given by the Germans mainly on a census. The Germans had a direct influence on the council, and the members had to be accountable to the Nazis for their own safety (Fleming 336). Generally, the Jews were vulnerable because of the sudden change of environment after deportation to the chaotic ghettoes.
The ghettoes as concentration areas denied Jews freedom of communication which was integral for their economic wellbeing.
An emergent norm in the ghettoes was formation of women organization to help them cope with the hardships.
A contrasting reality in the ghettoes that was different from the concentration camps is that women in this setting gave more priority to their families more than their female counterparts in the concentration camps, undergoing struggles in their environment (Burger 41).
Nazi Takeover Germany
Nazi movement gained political clout after Hitler was appointed the chairman of the National Socialist Workers Party in 1920 and was granted dictatorial powers. Hitler was later arrested for attempting to overthrow the Bavarian government but in the process managed to secure a shorter term by spewing racist propaganda verbatim against the Jews (Thomas
73). In the period, 1924-1928, the Nazi Party was undergoing intense reorganization and political incubation as its defacto leader concentrated his dictatorial authority after release from the prison. The Weimer Republic break-up in 1930-1933 and the miscalculation by the advisors of President Hindenburg with regard to Hitler`s ambition and real intentions are factors that ignited the rise of Nazi Germany (Thomas
79). Moreover, the economic crisis in the country and its ripple effect to Germans` life compounded by the indefatigable propaganda machinery spearheaded by Hitler were major factors that necessitated a change of the political leadership. The rise of Hitler to power is politically linked to the extermination of governance based on parliamentary democracy and break-up of Weimar Republic (Ian 53). The ineptness of people charged with the mandate of preventing the spread of Hitler`s ideologies in Germany failed to dislodge the dictator before he became a
