Historically, Netherlands has been recognized for developing systems that enable integration of people from different social groups. However, crisis on integration in contemporary times has become an integral issue in the public discourse. Particularly, the discourse of politics and formulation of immigration policies is an emergent issue in multi-level states such as Netherlands while delving into matters immigration governance (In Scholten & In Breugel, 2017 p 23). Evidently, immigration policies are becoming an issue of political contest in Netherlands.
Integration in Netherlands
Integration in Netherlands is used as a precondition to get a residence permit, either for permanent stay or for non-temporary humanitarian causes. Furthermore, Netherland`s policy directives have placed integration as a main conditionality for individuals applying for naturalization. Arguably, the impact of transnationalism is critical in integrating immigrants that have a strong cultural background (Maronitis, 2017, p 57). Migrants that have acquired a residence permit are obligated to pursue a diploma course in civic integration so that they can be sufficiently integrated. Theories on integration are discussed below to get an in-depth meaning about various models of integration that have been adopted by Dutch society over time.
1.1 Assimilation
Assimilation is also referred to as incorporation, and it mainly involves understanding the similarities that existent between the immigrant groups and the communities that are hosting them. The ramifications of the assimilation process are felt by the immigrant generation and passed on to the other preceding generations. A theoretical look at assimilation in some of the cases shows that the process is changing with time. Assimilation in the European context means adjusting to a secular and diverse environment where liberalism has thrived (Schneider, J., & Crul, 2014, p 45). The classic assimilation models assert that immigrants that have interacted with the host society for an extended duration of time have more similarities compared to groups that stayed for shorter period of time.
The first stage in immigration integration involves structural assimilation where strong cultural ties are developed between the immigrants and the host community. Essentially, there is a wave of new assimilation models that reinforces the role of social institutions in bolstering the process of assimilation so as to reduce the gap between the policy goals on immigration and the actual outcomes (Hollifield et al., 2014, p 34). The concept relating to assimilation has lost meaning over time mainly because the negative connotations that it has aroused on the immigrant communities. The contemporary immigrant incorporation initiatives are analyzed from a multicultural perspective.
Essentially, the ethnic disadvantage theory argues that institutional barriers such as discrimination and lack of access to employment slow the process of integration. The second generation migrants in European countries are not at a disadvantage compared to natives in the hosting country (Ballarino, G., & Panichella, 2015, p 61).However, the main argument against this theory is failure to consider the socio-economic mobility associated with different groups coming together .The recent model that is a hybrid of ethnic disadvantage and classic assimilation theory is known as a segmented assimilation model. In essence, this theory proposes a process of assimilation that is based on the socio-economic status and the race of an immigrant. Immigrants categorized as being disadvantaged are blocked from accessing opportunities such as employment hence slowing their advancement as a result of assimilation.
Perspectives of assimilation as an integration policy
The motive of adopting assimilation as an integration policy is to eliminate common social-cultural characteristics associated with particular diversities that are considered to be foreign among the immigrants. Evidently, there is a new trend in immigration where there is emphasis on citizenship and aspects of assimilation as opposed to multiculturalism, mainly as an influence of globalization. Modern immigration is denounced as a major contributor to the obliteration of nation-states as it interferes with the congruence that exists between citizenship, political boundaries and culture (Joppke, C., & Morawska, 2014, p 13). The modifications in terms of culture and other social norms have to be done by the ethnic groups that are considered to be inferior. In essence, assimilation is viewed as a form of substitution to the underlying principle of nationalism. However, the modern practice of assimilation has some aspects of pluralism in which the newcomers are allowed to retain some of their cultural practices.
The migrants that have been assimilated should be indistinguishable from the members of the majority ethnic group. Assimilation is generally considered to be an extreme form of acculturation, however, it is rare for an ethnic group to replace it original cultural values. The original assimilation theory was centered on homogeneity but the contemporary practices are mainly on acceptance of the plurality on cultures by the newcomers.
The American perspective of assimilation is absolute in the sense that a migrant is expected to denounce their past languages, loyalties, cultural practices and identities and become purely their citizen following different stages of progression. Regrettably, politicization of immigration policies is deemed to be the main problem that is affecting full integration of the immigrants (Maguire, 2017, p 109). Today, the debate on assimilation is linked to the difference that exists between immigrants and the natives, particularly on the aspects of social life. However, there is an order of priority into full integration starting with cultural, social and economic integration. Political integration is ranked as a secondary necessity for the immigrants. Aspects of social-economic integration are reinforced to a great extent by political incorporation that enables the descendants of the migrants to use political power to dilute institutional barriers that are existent within the host community (Achbari, 2008, p 25). The notion of citizenship is critical in modern times because integration policies that lean towards assimilation have an overbearing consideration of an individual`s involvement in all dimensions of the public social life.
1.2 Multiculturalism
Multiculturalism is defined as a system that consist of behaviors ,values and beliefs, which embraces diversity and the differences between social groups empowering them to positively contribute in an inclusive social-cultural context. The crucial aspect of the concept is the recognition that in different societies there is a rich diversity which should be respected for a peaceful coexistence. Respecting another person cultural values, political opinion and beliefs is reinforced by treating them with dignity, safeguard of their integrity and understanding their social worth. Another crucial contribution of multiculturalism is the acknowledgement of different cultural expressions, as part of contribution of various social groups in a particular society. National identity is enhanced through the embodiment of values, norms and bonds between people within diverse social groups. Immigrant groups are viewed to be entities that are continuously undergoing identity construction within the host community (In Decimo, F., & In Gribaldo, 2017, p 36). Majorly, multiculturalism defines the practice of giving prominence to what different cultures offers and not belittling it on the basis of the dominating and majority values or beliefs in a particular society. The ultimate goal of a policy that is derived from multiculturalism is to ensure that there is some level of unity in the diversities that coexist in a particular society. In contrast, the fears that arise in the adoption of multiculturalism as an integration policy is dilution of the majoritarian culture and values in a country.
Multiculturalism as adopted in Netherlands public life is a philosophy that ensures that discriminations and imbalances that are existent in the society are exterminated. The profound idea behind a public policy discourse based on multiculturalism is based on the government`s agenda on ensuring cultural diversity. Politically, Multiculturalism aims at achieving some level of acceptance of the differences that are existent in the society. Agreeably, multiculturalism is based on the placement of equal value on all cultures (Touwen, 2014, p 49). The theory on multiculturalism was developed by Will Kymlicka as a precursor of the pressure by world populations on settler nations. Essentially, Will was attempting to merge the liberal ideology with aspects of multicultural citizenship. The underlining factor that led to popularization of this theory was based on drawing connection that binds cultural membership to individual freedom. However, some authors argue that multiculturalism should be viewed from the standpoint of the need to recognize minority groups in public spaces as opposed to labeling them as private entities. The overriding negative perception about multiculturalism emanates from the underlying issues on withdrawal from the larger society as immigrant group seek to maintain their identity.
The critical issue that is explicit due to the European experience on matters immigration emanates from the existing notion about citizenship that is influenced by liberal ideas. Mainly, there are overt arguments that voluntary migrants have insignificant grievances with regard to cultural protection compared to other national minorities in Netherlands. Multiculturalism is centered on the ideals of political philosophy that are meant to achieve cultural relativism in countries facing immigration pressures. In essence, multiculturalism ignites debate on the public policy towards a demographic fact in a culturally diverse society.
Multiculturalism is premised on the demographic characteristics of a country, and as a normative theory relating to politics, there is a breakdown of principles that guide on governance of societies that are diverse. The integration multicultural theory challenges the assertions by liberal philosophers that human beings are agents that make free choices based on universalism thus deserving individual protection (Rosado, 1996 p 3). The emphasis given by this model of integration is criticized because it can lead to some degree of inequality in the society. In essence, this model of integration legitimizes the interests of a cultural group in the larger society. Liberalism supports states in the quest for neutrality towards cultures and this block the minorities from participation in the public sphere.
Theories on multiculturalism support the immigrants in the plight to be allowed to make meaningful participation in the public spheres of their host communities. Kymlicka argues that collective rights can be accommodated within the framework of liberalism (Kymlicka & Pföstl, 2014 p 19). Minority groups can guard their cultures and languages from extermination by the majority communities (Kymlicka & Pföstl, 2014, p 21). The mainstay of the multicultural citizenship is to reinforce allegiance to the state through attachments on politics and civic participation (Rosado, 1996 p 4). However, there are concerns over the existence of multiple loyalties hence the possibility of discrimination.
Cultural segmentation in Netherlands has necessitated questions on political accommodation of migrants because of the demand for policies on challenges that face various ethnic diversities in the country. The Dutch tolerance to other cultures has been challenged by changes in demography and the civic integration initiatives are driven by adoption of strict measures to ensure migrants learn Dutch society public life. Political scientists analyzing Netherland`s immigration and integration policies hold the view that the country has a consociationalism as a strategy meant to safeguard migrants and protect their identity under the shared citizenship norm. Consociationalism is a political ideology in which major governmental or policy decisions are made through consensus (Dror, 2017, p17).Consociationalism is applied in policymaking to ensure cohesiveness in the society.
Criticisms Leveled against multiculturalism as a dominant model in Netherlands
Multiculturalism had failed in creating a united Dutch society as an integration policy as some foreign cultural elements were difficult to alleviate through assimilation. The Muslims that originated from a non-western background did not have common values with other Dutch people who appreciated values such as equal rights, democracy and tolerance (Ghosh, R., & Galczynsk, 2014, p 67). In essence, this is a reality that immigrants found it difficult to accommodate despite being the prevalent social norm in Holland. Particularly, the government is accused of enhancing political capital towards cultural relativism without realizing the increasing burden due to the upsurge of immigrants. The politician who penned the article was concerned by the silence of the Dutch government over the incompatibility of values held by the Muslim community and the social fabric guiding Netherlands natives.
The political risks exposed to the ruling government in modern times ignited a radical change in policies to protect the liberal ideals and traditional values identified with Dutch people to gain political capital. The risk of breaking the social cohesion that was existent in the society, with fragmentation of the immigrants due to high unemployment levels of the immigrants overwhelmed the welfare systems and attracted undesirable behaviors such as crime((Vermeulen et al., 2018, p 44). Some of the issues that were highlighted as a precursor of the multicultural integration policy were low levels of education attainment that had ripple effect in securing employment.
1.3 Civic Integration Model
Civic integration has been introduced as an integration strategy by the Dutch government because of the security challenge emanating from the failure of assimilation of the postcolonial immigrants. Civic integration was adopted as a national policy in Netherlands as multiculturalism led to socio-economic problems that were not foreseen during the implementation process. The civic integration policy is impacted heavily by the necessity of the migrant population to be autonomous and self-sufficient.
Civic integration is viewed as an alternative to immigration policies that accept plurality and aspects of diversity among the immigrants. The immigrants are integrated into all the existing social institutions to participate in the mainstream economic, social and political activities. The communities migrating to the new environment must be ready to adjust to the liberal and social values of the hosting country by adopting their social norms. Mostly, immigrants fail to completely integrate to the host country because of the close attachment to their country of origin (Achbari, 2015, p 23). The migrant communities are thus expected to prioritize or at least show respect of the existing norms in the hosting country.
The main aim of civic integration as a means to ensuring that immigrants becomes part of the national community is to exterminate parallel societies and reduce cases of segregation. Civic integration led to the introduction of severe restrictions and enforcement of strict demands on the immigrants. In essence, the model has an extreme end in which the immigrants are made to behave naturally like Dutch citizens in their public life (Uunk, 2017, p 39). Notably, the immigrants are able to actualize their goals of enjoying equal citizenship like the natives if they adjust to their values and behavioral expectations.
The policy on civic integration has repulsive effect for being discriminatory, especially to people subscribing to Islam religion .The policies procedurally requires that an individual wishing to settle in Netherlands permanently to learn some of the values and norms basic to the Dutch people and while admitted, they should commit to study deeply to make them knowledgeable about common traditions of Netherland society (Van Tubergen, 2006, p 22). Recent governments have highlighted poverty and high levels in alienation of different ethnic groups as the main cause of the slow pace in the integration of the immigrants. Integration tests are conducted for the immigrants to bond with Dutch natives through marriages or for purposes of reunification of families.
Civic integration addresses a distinctive aspect of the immigration crisis that raises the standards for one to be admitted as foreigner in Netherlands. Civic integration presupposes that a migrant will take full responsibility to ensure they are fully incorporated. Mostly, European countries adopt a dual strategy in which civic integration and antidiscrimination policies are implemented together to place the burden on the individual and the society in the roadmap towards achieving a shared citizenship.
Civic integration as a policy was initiated in Netherlands primarily because of the shortcomings in the immigration policies related to multiculturalism. The migrants are given an avenue to participate actively in the mainstream institutions in Netherlands and achieving some level of autonomy by taking initiatives to learn the Dutch language. The integration law focusing on the newcomers was legislated in 1998, introducing yearly courses that consisted of civic education, Dutch language and on preparedness for the job market (Van Tubergen, 2006, p11). The problems that emerged from integration exams were the privatization of the exercise which led to influx of migrants hence necessitating for introduction of stricter procedures by the government. Netherland government introduced a pre-condition for renewal of permits for workers to passing the exams on integration.
Callous interventions by the Dutch government that are largely viewed to be punitive required family seeking reunion to undertake integration tests at embassies before issuance of permits for temporary residence. The reality evident after implementation of civic integration was a drastic change to a no-migration policy from policies that were open to foreigners and furthermore delving into the challenges associated with transnationalism (Ambrosetti et al., 2016, p 18). Furthermore, the immigrant categories that are targeted in this case consist of a particular demography, mainly from Turkey and Morocco.
Chapter 2. The immigration situation and development of the Dutch integration policy
The immigration situation and development of the Dutch integration policy
Countries such as Netherlands had preferential treatment of immigrants from their former colonies such as Indonesia. Immigration is regarded as a non-issue while integration is a major crisis in Netherlands as reviewed through introduction of strict policies for the migrant communities (Triandafyllidou, 2016, p 251). The Dutch integration policy is informed by the emergent challenge of acculturation due to the cultural distance that is existent between the destination and countries of origin. The issue of national identity and the current challenge relating to insecurity is a profound factor that has to be dealt with, especially, after a consistent narrative derived from recent terrorist attacks. The increased level of social contact between migrants and the native Dutch nations is directly linked to the latter`s improved economic wellbeing and education acquisition (Vervoort, M., & Dagevos, 2011, p 35). The conflict between the various identities and the Dutch national identity has necessitated the adopting of a policy that addresses the underlying issue to envision a streamlined value system in the public sphere. Netherlands has invested heavily in revising the policies to deal with emergent issues such as terrorism that is centered on cultural conflicts around the world.
2.1 Demography of the Immigrants
The clear classification of the demography of migrants in Netherlands is best done into generations depending on the biological origins. Another critical distinction of migrants in Netherlands is based on a background that is either western or non-western. Essentially, in modern times, evidence of an upsurge in the number of migrants entering Netherlands to obtain citizenship is glaring which as a consequence of changes in the legislation. Incidentally, the statistics on population by birth reveals that individuals with a foreign origin have continued to increase in Netherlands.
The statistical information on the particular demography of foreigners in Dutch has gained prominence in creating registers to help the country in developing immigration and integration policies. Statistical analysis by background shows that there are about 17.1 million people in Netherlands, with 13.2 million having a Dutch background and 3.8 million people have a migrant background (Staline, 2018). A big percentage of non-western immigrants have a background from Turkey, followed by migrants from Morocco (Dutch government, 2015). Forecasts conducted in Netherlands recently show that there will be increase of western and non-western inhabitants in future (Statline website, 2018,). An approximation of non-western background immigrants to Netherlands by 2060 will be about three million people. Mostly, there was a notable increase of migrants from 14% to 20% from year 1990 to 2009(Statline website, 2018). Most migrants to Netherlands came because of family reasons, but later, a large population of foreigners consisted of asylum-seekers.
The current statistics on the immigrants in Netherlands according to their background shows that by 2018, there was about 2.07 million first generation migrants,1.89 million second generation,1.06million second generation with one parent from abroad and 0.83 million second generation migrants with both parents being foreigners(Statline website,2018). The request for asylum have declined over time from 58,880 in 2015 to 32,755 in 2017 a trend which can be attributed to the tightening of migration laws(Statline website,2018). Arguably, there is expected rise in asylum-seekers applications by family members of people whose requests are accepted in Netherlands.
The second generation immigrants have been raised in Netherlands and thus, they are not culturally different from Dutch natives. In essence, this has ignited a major change in Netherland`s demography threatening the dominance of the natives. International migration has caused a major shift in the ethnic composition of Dutch population. The purposes of migration have shifted over time because of reasons such as labor migration, reunion of families and their formation. However, in modern times the increasing numbers of migrants consist of asylum-seekers from a non-western background.
Netherlands has become an immigration destination introducing new challenges that relate to population pressure. Essentially, the growing migrant population led to a policy shift towards creating a labor market that is active to avoid passive income programs (Maguire, 2017, p 110). Moreover, the perception is changing in Netherlands from a country that is tolerant to people of different cultures and religious backgrounds due to the contemporary issues of heightened terrorist attacks. The Dutch government has not taken a position amplified by other European countries of securitizing the immigration problem (Hargitai, 2018, p 58). The guest workers that originated from former Dutch colonies such as Indonesia with time became economically marginalized pushing Netherlands to invest heavily in social support. The reason why Netherlands is currently perceived to be pursuing an assimilationist policy that is described to be fierce is the high level of immigration inflows in the country. The high number of migrants with culturally diverse origins is viewed as a common distraction to the integration initiatives in the country.
The data on immigrants in Netherlands are based on ethnicity, as opposed to country of origin or nationality. The non-western populations in Dutch society are categorized as a disadvantaged group in the society by the government (Maris, 2018, p 31). Notably, about 6.2% of Dutch population consists of people who have not acquired Netherland`s citizenship (World Population Review, 2018). The non-western cluster of immigrants that is composed of Moroccans and Turks are disadvantaged mainly because high levels of unemployment, discrimination in the labor market and poor performance in schools (Ersanilli, 2014). Factually, in 2006, the rate of employment among the Moroccans and Turks was 38.7% and 43.9% respectively (World Population Review, 2018).Notably, this legitimizes the policy directives that focus on immigrants from this background.
The political debates in the country have ignited animosity towards Moroccans and Antilleans as the problematic group in Netherlands, especially with regard to crime tendencies. Evidently, a contemporary reality identified with immigrants is the creation of advocacy platforms such as political parties that acts as avenues to promote the welfare and rights of immigrant population (Vermeulen et al., 2018, p 27). The Antilleans living conditions in Netherlands have deteriorated a fact that has been attributed to poor education and problems in mastering the Dutch language. Another issue that is evident in Dutch society is inequality in access to quality education between native Dutch children and those ones belonging to the second generation immigrants (Ersanilli, 2014, p21). Moreover, the school drop-out levels of non-western immigrants` children compared to that of the natives is double in percentages. However, Moroccan and Turkish immigrants’ enrollment for higher education has increased by ten percent over time, which is a notable improvement.
Evidently, a major change that has occurred in Netherlands due to high inflow of immigrants is the evolution of the immigration politics (Bloemraad et al., 2008, p 153). Immigrants in Netherlands have become active participants in politics despite having low percentages of voters. Noteworthy, the immigrant population is underrepresented but there is a commitment that is notable towards achieving inclusivity.
The high levels of immigration have resulted to irregular entry into Netherlands and some people are living in the country without the required authorization. In essence, individuals who did not return to their countries of origin after denial of asylum are stilling living in Netherlands illegally. The largest group of this population is believed to have originated from Morocco. The current developments that is evident in Netherlands focuses on legislations to seal loopholes that encourage illegal immigrants in Netherlands (Kraal & Vertovec, 2017, p 31). The laws developed in contemporary times aim at reducing the level of migration by families and low-skilled people, while at the same time enhancing integration efforts. The repercussion of the new laws is a broader scope of the civic integration course to make it complex for the newcomers. Additionally, the debate on dual citizenship has occupied the political landscape with arguments on the misplaced loyalty of the migrants. The government has to institute reforms to create an inclusive society that is devoid of discrimination. The politicization of the Muslim issue in a discriminative way in the public space must be discouraged because Netherlands is known to be a multicultural society. Another integral issue that has emerged is on fragmentation of immigration and the accompanying high rates of crime which is a demographic reality in contemporary times. The welfare State in Netherlands has been affected by social processes in the society, especially the high level of immigrants. About 40% population increase in Netherlands is attributed to immigration an issue that necessitates the government to plan strategically with regard to the immigration policy (Sáenz et al., 2015, p 13).However, the multiculturalism as an integration policy has been critical in enhancing peaceful coexistence between different social groups in the country.
2.2 Policy Development by Eras
Policies in 1970s and the Period before
The traditional system of integration was hinged on pillarization which created a segmented society which was disbanded because of secularization of the society (Bruquetas et al., 2007, p 13). The sectarian characteristic associated with consociationalism was not desirable because it derided cross-cultural relationship that is crucial in the integration of foreigners in Netherlands (Bruquetas et al., 2007, p 15). The fact that Netherlands as a country had not been established as a migration destination and the migrants were mainly guest workers with temporary work permits, there was adoption of ad hoc procedures for accommodation of the foreigners (Hanf & Soetendorp, 2014, p 83). The attention by the policies during this day was framed with prior thinking of maintaining the identity of the migrants. The welfare policy in the 1970s was created to aid in the response to the needs that involved the vulnerable groups such as asylum seekers and the guest workers (Bruquetas et al., 2007, p 14). Noteworthy, private institutions were incorporated with the objective of dealing with the challenges that were the vulnerable groups were facing in the Netherlands (Bloemraad et al., 2008, p 43). Programs that delved on helping the children belonging to the migrant workers to connect with their cultural origins were initiated in Netherland. However, contrary to the planned return of migrant workers to their countries’ of origin most of them settled.
The policy of pillarization was crucial in creating a framework that pluralism would be accepted (Bruquetas et al., 2007, p 13). Notably, this policy history has permeated into the country`s political system leading to consensus democracy (consociationalism) as part of political culture. The influence of pillarization on formulation of integration policies was critical, and more specifically on how the newcomers were perceived, primarily as a disadvantaged group. Accommodating pluralism is a major legacy that has been upheld in Holland, demonstrated by how they deal with the immigration inflow crisis. Pillarization had a lasting impact on the political culture of the Dutch society especially on sensitivity to fundamental issues that would raise political debate such as immigration (Bruquetas et al., 2007, p 14). Pillarization was impactful in helping to institutionalize laws and rules, though; there was a new wave of change with regard to secularization of the society (Vollebergh et al, 2017, p 59). The institutional legacy had fundamental value in helping minority groups to establish their own organizations. The history of State welfare regime had a crucial role with regard to decommodification of the markets hence protecting the immigrants from exploitation (Bruquetas et al., 2007, p 8). The welfare regime system recognized immigrants as a social group that needed emancipation to be self-sufficient.
Migrant communities during the 1970s grew significantly, mainly as guest workers and others as asylum seekers. The influx of foreigners aroused a political debate to deal with the ensuing crisis as different governmental agencies introduced policy measures to address challenges facing migrant communities. Furthermore, social scientists initiated a discourse on settlement of the immigrants permanently or on basis of temporary migration (Joppke, 2007 p 19). Summarily, the 1970 decade integration issues were mainly a public discourse by civil servants, local authorities, media and the academics (Bruquetas et al., 2007 p 14). The Scientific Council in 1979 became a cata
