The section chiefly evaluates existing literature on social media and self-presentation and how it influences the formation of identity among adolescents. In the recent days, there has been tremendous development in technology which have significantly influenced the level of interaction among people and the way they present themselves in social media sites (Fox and Vendemia 2016, p. 594). The ubiquity and assistive technology, social interaction, and communication are constant among adolescents. With the help of internet technologies, many people receive continuous social feedback, which ultimately affects the way adolescents view or present themselves on social media sites (Ahn 2017, p. 18). In this context, adolescents refer to the time characterised by psychological growth and developmental change. To comprehensively cover this, the research focuses on two pertinent questions, including to what extent are young adults selective in their choices of online posting and pho-sharing on major social networking sites (Fox and Vendemia 2016, p. 598). Secondly, the section deeply has explored existing literature on motivations behind constructing the ideal self in photos sharing. Also, there is a critical review of relevant theories in order to enhance the understanding of the problem.
2.1 Theoretical Frameworks
Goffman’s dramaturgical theory has been used to uncover weaknesses, strengths, gaps in the existing literature, and further describe the topic. Goffman viewed the society through a symbolic interaction which affects behaviour and presentation of individuals (Ahn 2017, p. 2). The model postulates that people are social actors in the society who influence the behaviour of others in the society and this result to people embracing new ideas depending on symbols (Ahn 2017, p. 5). The dramaturgical model states that individual's identity is not an independent and stable psychological identity, but rather, the behaviour emanates or is redefined by general interaction with others (Hancock and Garner 2014, p. 163). Essentially, social interaction is analysed based on how individuals fit in the society and on matters such as actors performing on a stage. People in their every-day lives manage clothing, clothing, non-verbal actions, and words to provide a specific impression to others (Ahn 2017, p. 17).
According to this theory, individual’s performance is the presentation of self, an effort that is meant to create a specific impression among others. Before interaction, Goffman’s suggest that a person prepares an impression or role which she/he intend to make on others (Ahn 2017, p. 22). Importantly, the dramaturgical model can be applied in this context to give insights about how various trends in social networking influence behaviour and presentation of adolescents (Hancock and Garner 2014, p. 180). With the fact that adolescents are easily swayed by activities performed by others just for the purpose of identity, this theory will significantly to develop various answers for research questions. The primary aspects connecting this topic with Goffman’s theory is social justice concept, where people have defined roles and central goal that influences characters and behaviours of others (Hancock and Garner 2014, p. 180). Despite the criticism that dramaturgical model should specifically be applied to organisations rather than individuals, lack of justification apparently makes it more suitable for this research.
2.3 Self-presentation and identity in social media: The expressiveness of an individual
Over the past few years, social media has continued to remain a big part of people’s lives and the adolescents constitute the largest number group that is using the networking sites including Facebook, snapchat and any other medium. Self-presentation is the crucial component of an individual’s identity development which has extended from the traditional socializing context to the online communication and recognition of personal identity (Adachi & Willoughby 2014, p.120). From Goff man’s theories concerning identity and social performance, it is evident that recognition of who you are is an intentional and tangible component of identity (Stephenson-Abetz & Holman 2016, p.181). In this digital age, “selfies”, daily blogs, political thought and occupation status are used to represent self and are a kind of identity affirmation. These newly technologically advanced techniques of socializing influence the mindfulness of a person and thus affecting the expressiveness of such individual. It is easy to communicate your own image to others and the self-presentation can vary depending on the four dimensions that include breadth, depth, positivity and authenticity.
Breadth involves the amount of information revealed while authenticity looks at the level of genuine presentation (Toma 2013, p.199). The two main components of identity development that contribute towards the transition from adolescence to adulthood include esteem as well as clarity of concept (Perez, Cromley & Kaplan 2014, p.320). According to Adachi & Willough 2014, many youths mainly display connections through the profile content where they upload photos and provide personal information together with music and links with other users from different cultural backgrounds p.120. Henceforth, presenting a person’s real identity through the application of different elements such as usernames and pictures together with other important data that is provided on their profiles. Harter 2012 argues that adolescents will continuously modify their online presentation of self-identity to respond to changing environmental and societal goals. However, these media limits adolescents’ ability to experiment their identity online and also, the young adults will manipulate their profiles as a strategy to create impressions that are favourable through a variety of ways. Hence, changing how internet users self-present themselves online.
Through the visual content, teens and young adults can create an online impression through textual descriptors (Davis 2013, p.2285). They want to look sexually attractive especially when it comes to females while males post photographs or pictures that portray the concept of self-promoting and contents that reference to alcohol. Additionally, the male adolescents would also like to ensure that the information they share and comment is related to technology, sports and humour (Toma 2013, p.199). However, the online self-presentation raises privacy issues as some youths may ignore modification of the settings to limit profile visibility. Such ignorance of not limiting the targeted or perceived audience leads to provision of compromising information as well as displaying themselves provocatively.
Individuals remain inspired and pay attention in the self-presentation particularly when there is a need to maintain social connections and promote self-concept accompanied by developing an identity (Perez et al. 2014, p.321). Consumption of the web space and internet sites can be self-defining and self-expressive behaviour (Chia-chen & Bradford 2016, p.410). Adolescents who are the main consumers construct identities through digitally associating themselves with the signs, symbols places and material objectives. Nevertheless, minority gender identities are expressed through the social media and the popular sites are regarded as the heteronormative environments. However, these social networking sites present difficulties especially when it comes to identity negotiation and the control of personal information provided by the teens leading to the adoption of strategies that impact their emotional and psychological well-being.
Therefore, from the above discussions, it is evident that social media allows adolescents to explore as well as configure their gender identities and henceforth clarifying who they are and how to associate with the society. Young users post photos and picture to reflect their personality and would expect to get supportive feedback that improves individual's self-worth (Harter 2012). Thus, the youths can negatively or positively present themselves on the social media platforms and thus affecting the concept of sociality. The interpersonal character of the media, therefore, affects self-views and may have the unfavourable effect on the adolescents' view of their bodies (Davis 2013, p.2286). Social network site use increases appearance investment and body dissatisfaction among the young adults.
2.4. Relationship Between Online and Offline Interaction
Social networking sites, including Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Weibo, and others are popular communication among emerging adults and adolescents. However, little has been known about all activities adolescents engages on these sites and circle of friends they socialise with using online and offline platforms. Campbell 2011, p. 63 observes thatonline interaction allows users to receive constant feedback or response. The findings are supported by Chung 2013, p. 1405 who suggests that online systems enable individuals to receive messages, contacted, connect with others, and response to messages constantly. On the other hand, offline interaction refers to the capability to pass information to a person who is currently not connected a network of computers (Viluckiene 2015, p. 453). It is beyond doubt that people are increasing their online presence both professionally and socially (Nylander and Larshammar 2012, p. 22). Online communication approaches have proved to be more effective and efficient because it accesses to feedback from many people within the shortest period (Campbell 2011, p. 65). Nevertheless, its effectiveness does not completely disqualify the use of offline systems which equally facilitates communication, and personal interactions which aids in building healthy relationships with people, foster deeper connections, and further gives participants a sense of community (Dong et al. 2016, p 68). The way people communicate nowadays is totally different from the one that was observed in the past two decades (Nylander and Larshammar 2012, p. 25). The advent of the internet has substantially changed the interaction between people hence increasing the access to information within shortest time irrespective of geographical location.
According to Hughes, Morrison and Burke 2017, p. 87, online interaction is commonly experienced among adolescents which have equally influenced their behaviour and general lifestyles. However, Viluckiene 2015, p. 457 expounded on this by concluding that online interaction is mostly used among people of different dynamics because of immense innovation that has culminated in the development of tablets, smartphones, laptops, and other gadgets that ameliorates internet connectivity which is vital for sharing of information, posting of pictures, and other updates about individuals feelings (Khan, Gagne, Yang and Shapka 2016, p. 941). Further developments like the widespread of Wi-Fi in most cities across the world has changed the way adolescents rest, make friends, work, and build relationships (Schilbach 2014, p. 4). Online interaction is currently available everywhere, thus allowing individuals to send and receive messages to and from friends in social networks (Nylander and Larshammar 2012, p. 23). Online interaction networks have more benefits compared with offline, an element that has increased its popularity and uses among adolescents (Chung 2013, p. 1409). First and foremost, online social networks sites are commonly used because it is convenient, simple, interesting, and pleasant. Khan, Gagne, Yang and Shapka 2016, p. 940, improved on this by suggesting that adolescents prefer this approach since it helps them to get in touch with many people across the world.
According to Dong, Kuiyu and Bowen 2016, p. 62, offline interaction is important in the contemporary environment because of three major reasons which motivate people to employ amid accessibility to online communication systems. The first reason for its application is that it promotes personal interaction which is associated with methods such as face to face drop-in centre and telephone conversation which enhance obtaining and understanding of an individual’s personality (Hughes et al. 2017, p. 90). In simple terms, offline interaction allows participants to evaluate the community or group in which one might be seeking feedback. Consequently, an individual capitalises on personal interactions to build relationships as well as obtain high levels of feedback (Schilbach 2014, p. 5). As many people are embracing online interactions, there is a disconnection with a community which can indeed be addressed by use of offline systems, hence, offline interaction builds the community. Thirdly, from offline engagement, a person finds the need for applying online to discuss projects with an individual met offline. In general, people increase their online presence just from relationships created offline (Khan et al. 2016, p. 944). Therefore, the primary connection is that both forms enhance communication and interaction among adolescents and adults.
The main differences can be derived from the capability to promote relationship among participants, internet connectivity, and time taken for a response. However, most of the existing literature has basically provided overall information concerning the use of both online and offline communication. Also, current studies have not provided a profound explanation of how online and offline interaction influence behaviours among adolescents and emerging adulthood.
2.5 Online representation of an ideal self (Idealization)
From the theory concerning ideal and true-self and a popularity of the concept of “selfie” in the virtual space, individuals will tend to present themselves as a person they want to become in future or brands (Michikyan, Subrahmanyam & Dennis 2014, p.180). In the social network, perception is everything and creating and maintaining an online presence is relevant. The concept of presenting ideal selves rather than real selves is becoming more prevalent on media platforms LinkedIn, Pinterest and Facebook. According to Toma 2013, ideal-self is a component that involves what you feel you should be and not your real attributes, characteristics and personality and is influenced by the societal and environmental factors, p.199.
From the societal standpoint, adolescents are driven by issues such as competition, achievement and status which lead to the creation and portrayal of ideal-self. Online representations of who we are on the social media networking sites may be significantly related to our actual selves (Jones 2015, p.119). For instance, a Facebook profile that contains an individual’s name, pictures and personal details will be fairly representative of a person. Low self-concept along with failure to be aware of real-self is the primary personal trait that significantly leads to an identification of false-self and gets manifested through the low general authenticity (Michikyan et al. 2014, p.181). As a result, there are severe implications for a person's well-being more particularly if it is done consistently and inflexible.
The idealization of a person on the socializing sites deviates from real-self and such is due to insufficient and negative regard when a person is still a young child. As you transcend to the adolescence stage, there are various psychological problems that are experienced leading to the hiding of a person's identity (Belk 2013, p.483). The platforms have created unrealistic standards together with expectations on human beings based on a lifestyle that is essentially nonexistent (Jones 2015, p.117). For instance, no person will be willing to share embarrassing medical conditions and the illicit drug or substance. People always want to look good and attractive leading to the hiding of self-identity. With an appropriate level of idealization, you construct your memories and believe the qualities found in a particular person are what you are and thus leading to ideal-self (Chia-chen & Bradford 2016, p.409). Therefore, adolescents end up to negatively comparing themselves to what is portrayed on the sites by friends from different cultural and societal backgrounds.
Nevertheless, minority gender identities are expressed through the social media and the popular sites are regarded as the normative environment identity (Stephenson-Abetz & Holman 2016, p.181). The youth project and consume idealized images and this flawlessness has severe implications for the presentation of true self. Internet users present themselves in a less gender-stereotypical manner online (Adachi & Willoughby 2014, p.121). Such altered self-presentation influences the personal well-being and one would end forgetting the true identity and think of the ideal self at all times (Perez et al. 2014, p.320). Such misperceptions lead to a severe impact on the adolescents, especially the emotional and psychological problems.
2.6 The study of online identity-sharing behaviour in social networking sites: “Impressive management”
Social network profiles are the root of the sociological transformation and have become a universal template for online identity and sharing (Boyd 2012, p.30). Adolescents, through their profiles and status updates, share more about themselves than they had done before. For instance, Facebook may be seen as a secure and trusted environment where people are sharing almost everything with individuals they barely know. The commonly shared elements include employment history, age, political views, academic pedigree, job title, favourite books, hobbies, interests and even best movies (Wilson, Gosling & Graham 2012, p.211). Real-time updates such as tweets and status messages assist in picturing out of who someone is through an instantaneous snapshot through thoughts, feelings and interactions with others.
Young adults create pages that seemingly represent who they are and also contain the initial as well as ongoing negotiation of identity. Online recognition and visual impression are reconstructed while taking into consideration social connection, popularity and peer perception values (Osatuyi 2013, p.2629). Pictures and information are used to represent real identities and the concept of idealization. Furthermore, web space communication necessitates appropriate impression management. There are four important points that need to be taken into consideration by users of social media (Omara, Rashid & Majid 2014, p.526). They should know that privacy is not dead and not everyone in the sites that wants to build the perceived audience. All visual metaphors are always utilized for purposes of connecting while images and multimedia represent consumers’ identity (Eric 2014). On the other hand, photos show the narrative association between what a person used to be in the past and their present characteristics. The profiles that are created on the act are used as the identity substitutions for younger adults (Wilson et al. 2012, p.207).
Boyd 2012 argues that the cultural background of the youths and teens influences both offline and online identity, p.30. Identity, privacy and control are continuously being debated on the online social networking sites since the complex socio-technical ecosystem demands a stabilized and innovative solution to the internet users (Osatuyi 2013, p.2627). For example as Facebook and Google+ continuously become popular across the world new users particularly the adolescents immensely remain afraid of using real names. Such reluctance results from the fear that personal information may be compromised and they cannot be in a better position to control social situations that may arise online (Omara et al. 2014, p.526). The credibility of information shared online in the context of computer-mediated communication is questionable and the need to explore different categories of the information producers (Boyd 2012, p.31). The data may be sensational, political, sensitive or social. Therefore, visual self-presentation, language and usernames are used by the adolescents to construct the desired online self-identity.
Younger adults get deceived by interactions with peer to an extent that they provide intimate details with people they barely know (Osatuyi 2013, p.2629). Such actions have repercussions to the offline identities. For instance, over the past few years, Facebook has overwhelmingly become a sort of directory for internet users and specifically the adolescents who are the target audience in this research paper (Wilson et al. 2012, p.207). Majority of the teens do not necessary all their personal information as there is a feeling of being uncomfortable with Facebook’s settings regarding sharing of an individual’s name, networks, list of friends, profile pictures, gender, name and even pages (Eric 2014). Therefore, personal information that is shared by adolescents in different social networking sites can be used to distinguish as well as trace a person’s identity through the online presentation of self.
2.7 The Study of Social Norms, Social Comparison and Identity in Adolescence (Selective Posting Online)
According to Bennett 2014, p. 184, social networking platforms offers the means for self-expression for people hence creating the challenge of balancing several selves and their respective groups as well. The social media creates space that allows users to feel free to share any information or express their opinion online (Bennett 2014, p. 189). As a result, people get the opportunity to handle certain problems they may be experiencing in their day to day activities. Moreover, the outlet of social networking enables individuals to transform their self and identity online which cannot be made offline because of confidence issues (Wiley and Berman 2012, p. 1211). Evidently, the use of social media for identity practice helps users to align with the work being done hence increasing the degree of interaction and influence on others (Yang, Holden and Carter 2018, p. 96). Also, the selective posting enables adolescents to test themselves on different forms of online self and depending on the feedback from the audience (Tanti et al. 2011, p. 562). Individuals usually have control over their own identity formation and self-understanding which eventually influences them to develop an effective method of presenting themselves offline depending on the feedback of online tested identity (Yang et al. 2018, p. 93).
In the adolescent, social norms and comparison with peers is an important aspect that influences the behaviour of adolescents and the selection of digital communication platforms to embrace (Wiley and Berman 2012, p. 1208). According to this article, members of a peer group usually transform their characters based on group or social norms which ultimately affects adolescents’ choice of the photos and updates to share online. Naewon 2012, p. 87, social norms governs the behaviour of individuals in society and further forms the foundation for correcting actions of the members. Self-identity is a significant moderator because a person bases on the existing societal principles to determine actions that are acceptable in the community (Naewon 2012, p. 74). With the fact that every social situation entails its own specific set of expectations concerning a proper way to behave and this varies from one group to the other. Such expectations become more evident when examining the roles played people in the society (Naewon 2012, p. 97). The most common group that is developed among adolescents is for friendship where membership depends on individuals’ capability to conform to group imperatives (Wiley and Berman 2012, p. 1204). To avoid being denied membership, individuals basically post what information shared by others; hence, norms provides order, predictability in social relationships, and understanding of each other actions hence determining photos and information posted online by adolescents.
The willingness among adolescents to post a message or share photos online is also determined by social comparison theory. The model encompasses three types of appraisals, including self-improvement, self-enhancement, and self-evaluation. According to Masland and Lease 2013, p. 662, self-evaluation comparisons help in gathering data on how one's own standing relates to other members in terms of social expectations, skills, and attributes. With the assumptions that most of the emerging adults are highly susceptible to adopting new changes and sharing what they consider relevant to the social media platforms, it is evident that an individual bases on his/her capabilities when deciding the nature of information to post online (Tanti, Stukas, Halloran and Foddy 2011, p. 558). Secondly, self-improvement comparisons enable individuals to learn how to improve specific characteristics. Adolescents can base on information posted online by friends or group members to improve on their makeups and become more attractive (Masland and Lease 2013, p. 665). Finally, self-enhancement comparisons help individuals to protect self-worth and self-esteem which eventually allows them to develop positive views concerning the self (Yang et al. 2018, p. 87). However, self-enhancement mechanisms discussed in the most literature include describing others as being less advantaged on particular attributes one feels superior on which might not be a true reflection of member’s behaviours.
Conclusion
The newly technologically advanced techniques of socializing influence the mindfulness of a person and thus affecting the expressiveness of such individual. Consumption of the web space and internet sites can be self-defining and self-expressive behaviour. Low self-concept along with failure to be aware of real-self is the primary personal trait that significantly leads to an identification of false-self and gets manifested through the low general authenticity. Identity, privacy and control are continuously being debated on the online social networking sites since the complex socio-technical ecosystem demands a stabilized and innovative solution to the internet users. The adolescence stage is marked with different developments among individuals as they continually add and discard new characters for the purpose of suiting a particular group. The significant users of digital social media platforms include adolescents and emerging adulthoods, the primary focus is identifying motivations behind constructing a self in photo sharing which have not presently been covered in the most literature. Identity can be achieved by experimenting with different experiences, interests, and images until people are in a position to develop an authentic sense of individuality that fits the unique nature of the person.
References
Adachi, P. J. C., and Willoughby, T., 2014. Interpreting effect sizes when controlling for stability
effects in longitudinal autoregressive models: Implications for psychological science. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, vol.12 (no.1), pp.116–128. doi:10.1080/17405629.2014.963549.
Ahn, J., 2017. Microscopic Study of North Korean Schools’ Class Rooms - Focusing on Dramaturgical Approach of E. Goffman. Asian Journal of Education, Vol. 18, no. 1, pp.1-23.
Belk, R.W., 2013. Extended Self in a Digital World. Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 40,
No. 3 (October 2013), pp. 477-500.
Bennett, M., 2014. Intergroup Social Exclusion in Childhood: Forms, Norms, Context, and
Social Identity. Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 70, no. 1, pp.183-195.
Boyd, D., 2012.The politics of real names: power, context, and control in networked publics.
Communications of the ACM, vol.55, no.8, pp.29-31.
Campbell, H., 2011. Understanding the Relationship between Religion Online and Offline in a
Networked Society. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 80, no. 1, pp.64 93.
Chia-chen, Y. and Bradford B., 2016. Online Self-Presentation on Facebook and Self
Development During the College Transition. Journal of Youth Adolescence, vol.4, p.402–416. DOI 10.1007/s10964-015-0385-y
Chung, J., 2013. Social interaction in online support groups: Preference for online social interaction over offline social interaction. Computers in Human Behaviour, Vol. 29, no. 4, pp.1408-1414.
Davis, K., 2013. Young people’s digital lives: The impact of interpersonal relationship and
digital media use on adolescents’ sense of identity. Computers in Human Behavior, vol.29, pp.2281–2293. Doi:10.1016/j.chb.2013.05.022.
Dong, L., Kuiyu, T. and Bowen, H., 2016. The Relationship between Online Interaction and
Resilience: The Mediating Role of Online Social Support. International Journal of Database Theory and Application, Vol. 9, no. 1, pp.61-70.
Eric, H., 2014. Social networking and identity theft in the digital society. The International
Journal on Advances in Life Sciences, vol.6, no.3&4, pp.157-166: ISSN 1942-2660.
Fox, J. and Vendemia, M., 2016. Selective Self-Presentation and Social Comparison Through
Photographs on Social Networking Sites. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, Vol. 19, no. 10, pp.593-600.
Hancock, B. and Garner, R., 2014. Erving Goffman: Theorizing the Self in the Age of Advanced
Consumer Capitalism. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, Vol. 45, no. 2, pp.163-187.
Harter, S., 2012. The construction of the self: Developmental and sociocultural foundations
(2nd ed.). New York, NY: The Guilford Press
Hughes, J., Morrison, L. and Burke, A., 2017. The adolescent bricoleur: constructing identities through social networking sites. International Journal of Social Media and Interactive Learning Environments, Vol. 5, no. 2, p.87-90.
Jones, J.M., 2015. The Looking Glass Lens: Self-concept Changes Due to Social Media
Practices. The Journal of Social in Society, vol.4, no.1, pp.100-122.
Khan, S., Gagne, M., Yang, L. and Shapka, J., 2016. Exploring the relationship betwee adolescents' self-concept and their offline and online social worlds. Computers in Human
Behaviour, Vol. 55, pp.940-945.
Masland, L. and Lease, A., 2013. Effects of achievement motivation, social identity, and peer
group norms on academic conformity. Social Psychology of Education, Vol. 16, no. 4, pp.661-681.
Michikyan, M., Subrahmanyam, K. and Dennis, J., 2014. Can you tell who I am? Neuroticism,
extraversion, and online self-presentation among young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, vol.33, pp.179–183.
Naewon K., 2012. Effects of Citizens’ News and Information Use on their Perception of
Reciprocity and Social Norms: Focusing on Theories of Social Capital and Social Norms. Journal of Social Science, Vol. 38, no. 2, pp.73-100.
Nylander, S. and Larshammar, M., 2012. The Phone as a Tool for Combining Online and Offline
Social Activity. International Journal of Mobile Human-Computer Interaction, Vol. 4, no. 4, pp.22-36.
Omara, A.S., Rashidb, W. & Majid, A., 2014. Motivations using Social Networking Sites on
Quality Work Life. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, vol.130, pp.524 – 531.
Osatuyi, B., 2013. Information sharing on social media sites. Journal of Computers in Human
Behaviour, volume 29, no.6, pp.2622-2631.
Perez, T., Cromley, J., & Kaplan, A., 2014. The role of identity development, values, and costs
in college STEM retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, vol.106, no.1, pp.315–329.
Schilbach, L., 2014. On the relationship of online and offline social cognition. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, Vol. 8, pp. 1-7
Stephenson-Abetz, J., & Holman, A., 2016. Home is where the heart is: Facebook and the
negotiation of ‘‘old’’ and ‘‘new’’ during the transition to college. Western Journal of Communication,
vol.76, no.2, pp.175–193. doi:10.1080/10570314.2011.654309.
Tanti, C., Stukas, A., Halloran, M. and Foddy, M., 2011. Social identity change: Shifts in social
identity during adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, Vol. 34, no. 3, pp.555-567.
Toma, C. L., 2013. Feeling better but doing worse: Effects of Facebook self-presentation on
implicit self-esteem and cognitive task performance. Media Psychology, vol.16, no.2, pp.199–220. doi:10. 1080/15213269.2012.762189.
Viluckiene, J., 2015. The Relationship between Online Social Networking and Offline Social
