Judaism is one of the world’s foremost religions. Jerusalem is widely recognized as the headquarters of Judaism. The religion uses sacred texts such as Tanakh and the Talmud (Chalcraft 23). Judaism was established through Abraham, initially called Abram. God appeared to Abram and gave him an opportunity to prove his faithfulness. Abram and his wife Sarai agreed to leave the comforts of Ur and relocate to a land that they would be shown (Chalcraft 27). Some of his family members also accepted the call to migrate. Subsequently, Abram was promised descendants who would live on the Promised Land. Despite their old age, God promised the couple a son who would fulfill their legacy. The couple’s names were eventually changed to Abraham and Sarah. It is noteworthy that all the promises that God fulfilled all the promises that He made to the patriarch. The start of Judaism is usually pegged to the covenant that God established with Abraham (Chalcraft 32). The religion has undergone numerous developments since it was formed. In this paper, I will highlight how Judaism has developed using specific figures to highlight changes in practices and beliefs.
Abraham’s son, Isaac, grew up with God’s favor and blessing. God repeated the promises that were previously made to Abraham (Chalcraft 46). However, the foundation for Judaism was built through Jacob, Isaac’s son. God changed Jacob’s name to Israel and used the latter’s sons as the forefathers of the nation’s twelve tribes. In later years, God established the nation of Israel and secluded the Jews as his dedicated people. The founding patriarchs worshipped God using altars made of stones. However, the way of worship was changed after Moses was commissioned to deliver the Jews from bondage (Chalcraft 61). Jews were instructed to build a tabernacle through which ordained priests could offer sacrifices for atonement.
Judaism was governed by a set of laws given through Moses. The extensive laws focused on all areas of daily life. Blessings were promised for obedience while curses were outlined for disobedience (Chalcraft 83). All Jews were expected to offer bulls and other animals as guilt offerings and sin offerings. The priesthood was exclusively assigned to the tribe of Levi (Chalcraft 86). On the other hand, the tribe of Judah was given the privilege of kingship. Judges initially served as leaders of the Israelites while the nation took possession of the Promised Land. However, kings such as Saul, David, and Solomon were appointed to the lead. It was during this period that Jerusalem was selected as the center of true worship (Chalcraft 23). A magnificent temple was also built to replace the shambolic tabernacle.
Male members of the Jewish community were required to travel to Jerusalem three times a year to celebrate the Festival of Unleavened Bread, the Festival of Weeks, and the Festival of Booths (Green 46). Judaism was typified by the Sabbath observance. In this regard, all Jews were required to abstain from physical activity on the seventh day. The Sabbath was sanctified for worship and spiritual refreshment. Any Jews who contravened the Sabbath were liable for punishment (Green 46). In addition, the seventh year was designated as a Sabbath year. Israelites were under strict instructions on how to interact with foreigners. Specific laws were established to address matters concerning hygiene, worship, sacrifices, and family life. Any non-Israelite who desired to have divine favor was required to adopt Judaism. Marriages between Jews and other tribes were prohibited to protect their beliefs from contamination (Green 47). Consequently, Judaism emerged as a distinct religion with divine favor.
The modern history of Judaism is attributed to the 17th century when many people abandoned the Jewish faith but retained their identity as Jews. The French and American revolutions in the middle of the 18th century enabled the Jews to attain legal recognition as citizens (Neusner 59). Segregative and discriminatory customs had prevented Jews from pursuing careers. Such laws also limited the capabilities of Israelites. Hence, the modern period was characterized by the end of exile. Jews were scattered in alien lands while waiting for divine redemption. Rather than waiting for the proverbial return of the Messiah, Jews became proactive (Neusner 64). The nation pursued commercial success while individuals sought personal fulfillment.
The Haskala in the 18th century succeeded a prolonged period of Westernization (Neusner 65). In fact, the Marranos introduced other Jews to unique concepts of Western education. Benedict de Spinoza was one of the first people to apply educational skills to biblical traditions. Other Jewish communities in Italy participated in the Renaissance movement. The Ashkenazim community in the 18th century was affected by heightened contact with Western customs and languages (Neusner 69). It became necessary to take advantage of economic opportunities in European markets. Many Jews were located in German principalities and other Western nations. Working in banks and armies exposed such Jews to Gentiles. Most of the Jews in European countries desired to have full acceptance. Various intellectuals also campaigned for ghettoization to be discontinued as a prerequisite for emancipation.
Perhaps the most significant individual during Jewish Enlightenment was Moses Mendelssohn. The philosopher was recognized as a devoted follower of traditional Judaism (Neusner 72). Mendelssohn was also known for his focus on the usual preoccupation of Jews with the Talmud. However, he changed his perspectives on the Talmud and its literature in favor of European Enlightenment. Mendelssohn failed to defend his faith unless questioned by Christians. Some people wondered why he remained loyal to a religion that was unenlightened (Neusner 78). In this regard, Mendelssohn claimed that Judaism was an inherited religion with divine backing. God had instituted Judaism and granted Jews superiority over other nations. Mendelssohn claimed that he was a believer in the universal system of reason.
Gentiles accepted Mendelssohn as a prominent Jew who had adopted various aspects of the Western culture. The philosopher urged fellow Israelites to pursue the culture of Enlightenment and become Westerners. Mendelssohn worked with Naphtali Herz Wessely to translate the Tanakh into German (Neusner 81). In this regard, the two scholars combined German phonetics with Hebrew characters to replace outdated sections of the Yiddish. They also penned a Hebrew version of the modern biblical commentary (Neusner 85). Mendelssohn’s work was quite crucial since the translated Bible was distributed to all literate Jews in Europe. Readers gained unprecedented insight into fundamental aspects of the German culture. Mendelssohn was quite important since he empowered fellow Jews to convert to Westernization without neglecting their Judaism (Neusner 87). Hence, Jews learned that it was possible to practice Judaism while adhering to universal reason.
The Berlin Haskala fostered the legacy of Mendelssohn after the latter’s death. In this respect, they emphasize the value of secular education and Western culture (Robinson 20). Naphtali Wessely campaigned for the reformation of Jewish education before Israelites could be emancipated. Traditional Jewish studies would be shelved in favor of literature, world history, German, and mathematics (Robinson 21). Rather than fixate on the Talmud, the Bible was to be the primary book of study. Jewish businessmen and intellectuals established schools in Hamburg and Frankfurt. The descendants of Mendelssohn failed to balance secular culture and Judaism. Western education and languages undermined Judaism and Hebrew, respectively (Robinson 29). Consequently, many Jews considered themselves as Europeans.
David Friedlaender chose to accept Christianity without performing Christian practices (Robinson 33). He argued that Judaism and Christianity had little relation. Ceremonial law and biblical truth had similar ideals but different ways of application. Friedlaender’s offer was turned down since he could not recognize the supremacy of Christianity (Robinson 34). Religious leaders wanted him to make a permanent commitment to Christianity. Many followers of Mendelssohn decided to abandon Judaism and hence gain full acceptance into Western culture. The Russian Haskala wanted Jews to change into productive citizens for them to gain acceptance. For instance, Jews were required to manifest devotion to secular learning. They were also obligated to shun depraved superstitions and traditions. Isaac Baer Levinsohn published a document outlining the advantages of pursuing secular education. Other writers such as Isaac Erter and Joseph Perl ridiculed the superstitions of Jewish people (Robinson 38). This was quite significant since both writers were natural Jews. Therefore, anticlericalism was adopted as a mark of the Russian Haskala.
Hebrew writers such as Abraham Mapu and Micah Judah Lebensohn made enormous contributions towards the development of modern Jewish literature (Robinson 39). Judah Leib Gordon and Moses Leib Lilienblum created Hebrew-language periodicals to discuss poetry. These journals also emphasized the need for cultural and religious reforms (Robinson 45). Jewish intellectuals such as Lev Levanda, Osip Rabinovich, and Yoachim Tarnopol published weeklies to communicate about modernism, emancipation, and patriotism.
Samson Raphael Hirsch established a modern form of Judaism that focused on militant aspects (Robinson 53). In this regard, Neo-Orthodoxy sought to separate itself from any form of Judaism synonymous with elements of Reform. Neo-Orthodoxy had influential teachings that allowed people to perform religious rites while having full integration into European culture. This endeavor was accomplished by establishing a division between culture and religion. Messianic considerations would have to be discarded in favor of European traditions. The Jews were forced to have Orthodox beliefs while manifesting Western culture and manners (Robinson 58). Academic institutions such as Yeshiva University and other Orthodox synagogues fostered the intellectual ideals of Western Orthodoxy.
Israel Ba’al Shem Tov was directly involved in the creation of Hasidism (Rose 85). The latter ideology was filled with segments of social protest. In this respect, poor Jews were inspired to revolt against wealthy leaders. Rabbi Lev Isaac and Rabbi Dov Baer were trained in the teachings of the Talmud (Rose 86). Despite this, they encouraged other Jews to focus on religious devotion and earnest prayer. Hasidism introduced several elements into Judaism. Perhaps the greatest innovation was the concept of charismatic leaders. Some of the roles performed by charismatic leaders include atonement of sacrifices, God’s vicar, confessors, teachers, and wonder-workers. In the beginning, these leaders were selected through democratic processes. However, changes were made to create spiritual dynasties. Descendants of the first leaders were evaluated to determine if they had acquired paternal charisma (Rose 88). Consequently, Hasidism became an influential part of European culture.
Indeed, Judaism has led to massive developments throughout the world. Elijah ben Solomon headed the traditional class of rabbis against the spread of Hasidism. Jews in Lithuania were excommunicated if they embraced Hasidism. The rabbis gradually lost credibility as they were despised by the general population. Mitnaggedim and Hasidim gradually abandoned their hostilities and campaigned against the threat of Orthodox Jewish ideals (Rose 89). The ethicist movement in the 19th
century stimulated the growth of piety. Hence, Judaism spread to other continents.
Works Cited
Chalcraft, David J. Sectarianism in Early Judaism: Sociological Advances. New York: Routledge, 2014.
Green, Arthur. "Jewish studies and Jewish faith." Tikkun 31.3 (2016): 46-47.
Neusner, Jacob. Neusner on Judaism: Volume 1: History. New York: Routledge, 2017.
Robinson, George. Essential Judaism: Updated Edition: A Complete Guide to Beliefs, Customs " Rituals. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2016.
Rose, Gillian. Judaism and modernity: philosophical essays. New York: Verso Books, 2017.
