As people acquire more wealth, the consumption of luxury goods increases. Therefore, the situation makes the investigation of different aspects of luxury goods consumption interesting. The current study primarily focuses on the relationship between dark triad traits and snob consumption behaviour. The mediating effects of gender variation, consumer need for uniqueness, consumer susceptibility to normative influence, and the culture are also considered. The findings of the present study advance existing theoretical understanding of luxury or conspicuous consumption and offer marketing implications for luxury brands. According to the present study, snob consumers increase their buying power and preference since they deem increase in consumption of luxury goods as a prestige or social status element. The marketer or firm manager, who has understanding of the customer’s behaviour pattern or trend, would apprehend how to market the luxury goods in order to convince the snob consumers to purchase. However, the fondness of the snob consumer and need to differentiate oneself from the significant others leads to expensive luxury goods to be purchased by the snob consumer.
Key words: dark triad traits, snob consumers, conspicuous consumption, luxury, purchasing behaviour.
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
In economics, consumption of luxury goods, also known as upmarket good, rises more than proportionally as income increases. The upmarket products are characterized by the high-income elasticity of demand since as individuals acquire more wealth, they tend to buy more of luxury good. Additionally, Kapferer (2006, p. 316) clarifies the rationale behind the consumption of luxury goods or services by contending that customers seem to purchase luxuries to impress hence signaling their social status. Conferring to the theory of conspicuous consumption, luxury products act as indicators of cost to reveal the prestigious position of high-income individuals (Mowen 2000, p.87). Leibenstein (1950, p. 198) conducted a study with the aim of determining the “signaling effects” influence on consumption where the author realized that products importance could be augmented or diminished. Moreover, Kennedy and Bolar (2017, p. 123) argued that in an economic perspective, product’s utility and buying behavior of consumers can be influenced by the price level.
1.2 Background
A revolution has taken place where people across the globe are wealthier than the past decades hence meaning that the consumption of luxury goods are no longer the embrace of the kings but the mass marketing phenomenon of everyday life (Johnson 2009, p. 405). The notion of luxury is incredibly fluid and changes dramatically across the culture and time. Currently, with increased affluence, leisure is viewed as a blurred genre that is no longer elite’s preserve. People prefer more material comfort in contrast to previous generations, hence leading to a trend of the cultural shift for personal aspiration and fulfillment (Parker and Lehmann 2011, p. 418). Therefore, it can be argued that consumption of luxury goods is influenced by various factors including personality traits such as dark triad (Garfein 1989, p. 20). However, people with dark triad traits are perceived as individuals who are driven by prestige and social status. In the modern psychology, the dark triad is made of three aversive social personalities including psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and narcissism (Chen et al. 2016, p. 118). People who exhibit dark triad traits are characterized by argentic orientation (power and money), focus on self-interest, and cynical disregard of morality, duplicity, risky behaviors as well as exploitation and manipulation of other people for their gain. Jonason and Webster (2012, p. 521) argued that people who possess dark triad traits seem to deploy other individuals and initiate different manipulative means for their ends. The authors go further to explain that mysterious triad individuals have conspicuous possession as well as consumption of luxury good as a way to signal high income since conspicuous consumption can heighten one’s standing among the general public (Jonason and Webster 2012, p. 521).
1.3 Research Aim and Objectives
Conferring to past studies on luxury consumption, most scholars have vastly focused on the relationship between bright personality traits such as the bandwagon effect and personality traits. Additionally, there are no specific hypotheses in the marketing literature which covers the relationship between dark triad traits and their influence on snob consumption (Schalkwyk 2014, p. 42). Therefore, the present study aims to determine if the narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism personality influence the behaviour of snob consumption (Sedikides 2007, p. 70035). The study also aims to examine the extent which people with high dark triad tend to signal their self-concept through the conspicuous consumption of brands or products that are having snob appeal.
1.4 Value of Study
The current study has significance to the marketing literature as the knowledge obtained from the study can be utilized by marketers to identify the target group in the market in regards to dominant personality traits. Marketers can use the results and findings of the current research to improve brand personality and change the strategy of positioning to coincide with the self-concept of the consumer. As per Hong and Zinkhan (1995, p. 61), the self-concept-congruent advertising generates positive impact to brand preference and buying intention as consumers favour the products that can reflect their self-image. Furthermore, the present study is the first research to investigate the theoretical psychological antecedents such as status seeking, CSNI, and CNFU of snob effect and their interrelation with the dark personality of the consumers. The research also examines individual differences of a consumer and the extent to which those characteristics affect the purchasing power of the customers.
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Signalling Consumption
A need to satisfy a want or desire to express symbolic meanings might be the main reason behind luxury consumption among consumers. According to Eisenstadt (1968, p. 41), prestige has always been perceived as an element which constitutes the primary symbol of individuals social status or standing. The point is further elaborated by Richins (1994, p.529) who contends that one’s success might be determined or illustrated through the material possession. Additionally, Husic and Cicic (2009, p. 239) mentioned that utilizing status where goods act as symbols, individuals tend to tell more about themselves to their peers or reference groups. Therefore, consumers can explicit and present their self-concept through purchasing or consuming luxury products (Dubois and Duquesne 1993, p. 40; Wilcox, Kim, and Sen 2009, p. 247). People usually leave the functional utility and high price such that they can attain the manifestation status and wealth brought up by-products but they can also expose their concepts to the group reference by possessing or using expensive brands such as symbols (Bernheim and Bagwell, p.349). The aspect of Product that has high prices encourage consumers to have a feeling that is superior to for those other consumers when they receive an expensive specific item
2.2 Snob Consumption Behaviour
As per Leibenstein (1950, p. 198), snob consumers are individuals who tend to favour goods that are genuinely luxury, exclusive, and are not common to the general public. Leibenstein (1950, p. 1980) mentioned on the significance of “signalling effects” consumption, which indicates that utility acquired from a product is decreased or enhanced because the general public is consuming and buying it or because the brand has a lower or a higher price tag. Moreover, snob effect is used to refer to a phenomenon where the goods value increase as consumption of a particular commodity decrease or as rarity increase (Bhattt and Reddy 1988, p. 72). In other words, snob effect is a circumstance where the demand for a particular good by people of higher income level has an inverse relation to its demand by the individuals with a lower level of income. Therefore, some researchers argue that luxury goods meet the snob effect criterion since the consumption is driven by the desire of consumers to possess expensive, unique, or unordinary goods (Gould and Barak 1988, p. 393). Additionally, Amaldoss and Jain (2008, p. 936) contend that snob consumer will not purchase commonly owned good since the popularity reduces the utility of uniqueness, which are the significant aspects for an individual to maintain demand of a snob consumer. Snob individuals do not only show concern for their status but also emphasize their need for non-conformity to differentiate themselves from the conventional practices (Vigneron and Johnson 1999, p. 67). Typically, people with the independent orientation of self-concept attempt to assert their anti-conformist characteristics, unique personality, as well as personal preference disclosure, which is different from the inclination of the majority (Ackerman and Chung 2012, p. 72). In the perspective of a snob consumer, the commodity value will decline when the general public adopts or purchase the same goods. The value of the product will decrease among the snob consumers when the significant others are increasing their consumption of that particular product hence demonstrating people’s desire to be exclusive, to be different, and detach themselves from the majority (Leibenstein 1950, p.198). Matsibekker (2009, p. 78) conducted a study which examined the tactics utilised when persuading snob consumers to buy products. The results and findings demonstrated that snobs seem to show more interest in the products that are characterised by personal attributes of snob consumers such as the desirability to prove their status and identity (Leibenstein 1950, p.198). Therefore, the salesperson or marketer has to apply “status insult” tactic to criticise social prestige of snob consumers to trigger the intention to ratify their social status by making the purchase decision.
2.3 Bright Personality Trait
Personality theories have long attempted to demonstrate precisely the number of traits that exist. Past theories have proposed several possible traits, including Raymond Cattell’s 16-personality sixteen-personality aspects as well as Hans Eysenck’s three-factor theory (Nelissen and Meijers 2011, p. 343). However, most scholars indicated that Cattell’s approach was too complicated and Eysenck’s argument was too limited in scope. The large five-factor theory finally arose to describe the primary building-blocks of personality the behaviour. The people’s behaviour according to Miller (2009, p. 90) can be defined by taking the measures of the six essential traits that include agreeableness, extraversion, general openness, conscientiousness, stability, and intelligence. The author explains further that terms such as “smart” can be used by marketers to label their products as a way of appealing the buyers who are willing or ready to transfer their intelligence to the group reference. Meijers and Nelissen (2011, p. 343) agree that there are some stable personalities such as ambition, intelligence, and conscientiousness which influences the decisions of the consumer when deciding on the products to purchase. Costa and McCrae (1987, p. 90) classified traits of individual’s personality into five factors including extraversion, agreeableness, and openness to experience, neuroticism, and conscientiousness. However, McCrae’s big five traits are currently considered to be the basic model in the theory of personality trait. The model categorises individual’s personality by behavioural, cognitive, and emotional aspects which are distinctive in their respective combination.
Today, most researchers believe that they are only five core traits of personality. Therefore, several studies support the big five-factor personality model, although scholars lack the consensus on the exact definition for each dimension (Nelissen and Meijers 2011, p. 343).
In regards to the concept of agreeableness, Wiggins (1991, p. 356) claims that agreeableness is intimately associated with the pursuit to unify and correspond to others. Therefore, it means that individual’s behaviour is related to informative influence, hence referring to information acceptance from others and considering the information as reality representation. Mowen (2000, p. 120) elaborates the idea on agreeableness by defining the term as individual’s characteristic which sympathetically communicates generosity to others. Mowen (2000, p.120) also states that people with high agreeableness level tend to be honest, compassionate, reliable, gullible, and amiable
Conscientiousness refers to goal-oriented inclination, as well as extent of an individual in determination, organization, and diligence. As per Gould and Barak, (1989, p. 393) people with self-consciousness are characterised by public susceptibility and are highly linked with innovativeness and leadership fashion. Several authors argue that people adopt fashion consumption as a way of expressing oneself, as well as spend higher on the style to impose and convey social identity. According to Nelissen and Meijers (2011, p. 343), people have faith that they can utilize commodities as a way of indicating one's self-concept, personality, and interests to other people who have the same preference.
McCrae and Costa (1992, p. 90) analyse neuroticism as a measurement of personality involving adaptation and emotional ability and stability respectively. The authors further explain that those people likely to uphold a higher level of sentiments which are negative such as anxiety, aggression, desperation, and vulnerability have high completion of Neuroticism. Attmann and Johnson additionally claim that Neuroticism trait has an impact that is directly on compulsive purchasing. Furthermore, Gohary and Hanzaee (2014, p. 25) used their study argue to argue that Neuroticism is a measurement of the personality of an individual and is utilised to exhibit the importance buying goods in large amounts. The authors further explained that those people with higher scores in Neuroticism traits are more likely to be impulsive since they usually track down temporary ways to eliminate stress. Lennox and Wolfe (1984, p.1349), contend in their research that the two dimensions of social anxiety including apprehension of adverse judgment from the peers, neuroticism, and attention to information of social comparison (ATSCI) have a direct relationship. As per Synder (1974, p. 216), ATSCI is the suggestion to appropriate self-expression. People with high levels of ATSCI are more capable of making decisions on product choices of brands which are based on communal cues. Such types of people are incredibly apprehensive about opinion and suggestion from other people in regards to their product selection and consumption. However, Schalkwyk, (2014, p. 67) concluded that high requirement for the emotional stability is directly proportional to fashion-consciousness which indicates that Neuroticism tendency has a close relationship with bandwagon consumption, which is perceived as an inverted influence of snob-consumption-behaviour.
Nelissen and Meijers (2011, p. 343) explain that Experience Openness is the degree level in which people are inquisitive and tend to follow strange experiences as well as novel conceptions proactively. Thus, experience openness is said to have a positive relationship with individuals’ characteristics such as intelligent, imaginative, and unconventional. Nevertheless, Experience Openness has no association with normative effects such as the desire to conform (Nelissen and Meijers 2011, p. 343). According to Rhodewalt and Peterson (2009, p.65), people with high scores avoid the general public choices although they rise to correlate with counter-conformity. Therefore, the authors conclude that the trait of Openness to Experience influences the tendency to breach the rules of the reference group or peers to differentiate individual’s perspectives. Moreover, a study by Schalkwyk (2014, p. 72) adds that people with high degree level of normative effects tend to have low Experience Openness hence leading to the desire of feasibility and uniqueness in social compliance.
Costa and McCrae (1985, p. 86) conducted a study in extraversion’s concept which suggested that people with extrovert traits have different characteristics including active, optimistic, affectionate, person-oriented, and sociable, in which the sensation of the people is primarily influenced by extrinsic-experiences in place of internal cognitive functions. The scholars also conclude from their study that there is a definite correlation between extraversion and fashion consciousness traits. According to Cassidy (2012, p. 32), conspicuous consumption of luxurious goods results to gratification from exterior cognitive conditions which demonstrates that the extroverts need to look at their conspicuous consumption to obtain definite sympathy, opinion, and admiration from the society as extroverts seek out to be accepted or perceived as member of a specific socio-economic-group (Casidy 2012, p. 32). However, Wilt and Revelle (2009, p. 30) state that the sociability and ambition features of extravert encourage them to search for status consumption. Several extravert people with low income are likely to have high-status expenses than their counterparts who are introvert (Landis and Gladstone 2017, p. 1519).
On the other hand, introversion proponent debate that introverts are likely to recognize luxury as exclusive meaning as they treasure luxurious goods that are owned by fewer people (Costa and McCrae 1987, p. 82). Moreover, Nelissen and Meijers (2011, p. 343) argue that introverts concentrate mostly on the cognitive process in place of connecting oneself with other individuals, resulting to the evaluation of lifestyle based on their inside sensibility of oneself. Introverts are leveled by inner enjoyment-emotion privately and individually when consuming and buying luxurious materials by evolving the ideal-self-perception (Kennedy and Bolat 2017, p. 52). In the value of introversion, possessing luxury goods to fit in the general public lacks consistency as introverts are not interested in belonging to the majority.
However, several past studies indicate that differences of individuals who have bright personality traits have contributed to variation in purchasing behaviour (Sedikides 2007, p. 70035). Furthermore, people make different choices or seek confirmation to express their self-concept and social status.
2.4 Dark Personality Trait
The dark triad trait is used to refer to a set of subclinical anti-social characteristics that are directly and connected. Typically, the dark character is classified into three categories including psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and narcissism (Paulhus and Williams 2002, p. 556). However, most scholars of the dark triad agree that various categories of socially aversive behaviour demonstrate unique interrelationship with traits of bright personality. Additionally, some advocates of dark personality trait discovered that there is a definite relationship between narcissism, and the big five traits including the Openness to experience and extraversion (Costa and McCrae 1987, p. 90). The proponents further argue that Machiavellianism portrays an adverse relationship with agreeableness while psychopathy demonstrates negative relation with agreeableness and conscientiousness (Chen et al. 2016, p.118). Moreover, a research done by Paulhus and Williams (2002, p. 563), illustrated that dark personality has a negative correlation to honesty-humility. Thus, the findings convey a distinct relationship between narcissism and low degree of modesty and avoidance of greed, as well as the high tendency of psychopathy and Machiavellianism to relate with a low level of fairness and sincerity. However, a typical feature of Machiavellianism, highly adaptive behaviour of manipulation, might arise as result of lack of extraversion (Chen et al. 2016, p.118). Thus, narcissism can be affected by the relatively higher degree of conscientiousness hence facilitating the need for admiration from the reference group.
The study by Paulhus & Williams (2002, p. 563), also indicate there are significant associations between the strong desire for power, which means people are profoundly influenced by the need for power and money aspects to achieve the higher degree of social status and material consumption. Therefore, the consumption patterns and trends aid people to distinguish individuals with a low score in honesty-humility and a high score in dark triad (Chen et al. 2016, p.118). For instance, luxury consumption may emphasize on the individual’s desire to be impressive and self-centredness by showing a successful image. Notably, people can convey their affluence to peers through spending on expensive goods with the unnecessary practical utility to display the wealth abundance (Christie and Geis 1970, p. 56).
Status-driven risk-taking (SDRT) personality is the other aspect of dark triad. SDRT is used to refer to the tendency to pursue power and wealth, even when it exposes the individual to the higher risk of physical harm (Chen et al. 2016, p.118). Furthermore, a proponent of SDRT proposes that it is an element which has crucial relation to low Honesty-Humility in HEXACO model and low agreeableness in Five Factor Model. Status-driven risk taking varies from general risk-taking and sensation seeking since it is primarily influenced by social and financial accomplishment rather than fulfillment obtained from risky actions (Costa and McCrae 1987, p. 83). SDRT seems to associate with self-admiration, characteristic of narcissism, and the Machiavellianism and Psychopathy elements such as manipulative behavior in material seeking.
CHAPTER 3: MODEL AND HYPOTHESES
3.1 Narcissism
The first hypothesis that is derived from the model of Narcissism: H1: Narcissism will positively associate with snob consumption behaviour.
Morf and Rhodewalt (2001, p. 196) used a narcissism model to explain that narcissists need admiration to convey a false and fragile self-concept. In other words, individuals with narcissism are characterised by unrealistic and extravagant perception of superiority. Such individuals highly value self-importance and always perceive themselves as being unique and prestigious when contrasted with the general public. Furthermore, narcissist manipulates and exploit others to satisfy their self-worth and needs or desires. Sedikides et al. (2007, p. 70035), argue that narcissists with self-centredness convey their exaggerated self-concept through conspicuous consumption as well as possess luxury goods to make sure the reference groups perceive them with the desired notion of narcissist value such as entitlement, grandiosity, and a common need for assertation.
Additionally, Park, Lee, and Gregg (2013, p. 341) utilised empirical results to demonstrate that people with the narcissism of high scores prefer to buy consumer goods that offer the high level of uniqueness to strengthen their positive distinctiveness. The authors also argued that rare and exclusive products are more appealing to consumers with high scores in narcissism hence indicating that narcissistic people prefer goods that heighten their definite uniqueness, which has the close relationship with the value of snobbish consumers (Park, Lee, and Gregg 2013, p. 341).
3.2 Machiavellianism
Machiavellianism suggests the second hypothesis which is:
H2: Machiavellianism will positively associate with snob consumption behaviour
Machiavellianism is used to refer to traits of personality including callousness, insincerity, and manipulatives. Machiavellian individuals seek for control over others and have interest only in their status (Morf and Rhodewalt 2001, p. 196). Such individuals also pursuit for external indicators of achievement, for instance, power and wealth to reflect their superiority status. Additionally, the expert-rated profile shoes that typical Machiavellian individuals obtain the relatively low level of agreeableness which leads to lack of cooperation, self-interest, and deceitful actions. Furthermore, Schalkwyk (2014, p. 70) argues that individuals with low level of agreeableness seems to have moderate tenderness and less interdependent, which mitigates their ability to listen to others, meaning that such people might not accept information from peers or to conform with majority (Sedikides et al. 2007, p. 70035). Therefore, Machiavellianism people tend to be associated with uniqueness values and status seeking in snob consumption.
3.3 Psychopathy
H3: Psychopathy will positively associate with snob consumption behaviour
Hare (1991, p. 16) defines psychopathy as personality disorder characterised by impaired empathy, persistent antisocial behaviour, impaired remorse, disinhibited, bold, and egotistical traits. Moreover, Jones and Paulhus (2011, p. 45) argue that psychopathy people are short-term oriented, thrill-seeking, and impulsive hence demonstrating they are likely to seek instantaneous contentment of their desire and also incline for things that heighten the excitement. As a result of increase for immediate pleasure prestige, and status, psychopathy may tend to seek for luxury and unique goods that allow them to distinguish themselves from the general public with a purpose of reflecting their power (Sedikides et al. 2007, p. 70035).
3.4 Moderators
3.4.1 Consumer need for uniqueness
H4a: CNFU will positively moderate the impact of (a) narcissism, (b) Machiavellianism, (c) psychopathy on snob consumption behaviour.
Consumers who are prone to snob effect pursue dissociative utility. Furthermore, the value of the snob consumers is not driven by approval from the reference groups or peers; instead, they seem to refrain from general public behaviors. Kastanakis and Balabanis (2014, p.2150) argue that it is essential to focus on promoting the status acquired from dissociative, uniqueness, uniqueness-signaling, or even norm-breaking functions to target the segment of the snob consumer. Additionally, Tian, Bearden, and Hunter (2001, p.53) define consumer need for uniqueness (CNFU) as the trait of seeking differentiation relative to others through disposition, utilization, and acquisition of consumer goods to enhance and developing one’s self-image and social image. However, CNFU has three main factors including unpopular choice counter-conformity, avoidance of similarity, and creative choice counter-conformity. A study done by Leibenstein (1950, p. 200), demonstrates the snob consumers’ values of uniqueness to differentiate themselves from group norms and strengthen self-concept through acting differently from the mainstream. Thus, the different CNFU level may influence the relationship between the snob effect and dark triad traits.
3.4.2 Status-seeking
H4b: Status seeking characteristics will positively moderate the impact of (a) narcissism, (b) Machiavellianism, (c) psychopathy on snob consumption behaviour.
As per East, Goldsmith, and Flynn (1999, p.32), status-seeking characters are people who conspicuously consume specific prestigious brands to improve their social standing. Kastanakis and Balabanis (2014, p. 2147), mentioned that unconventional goods are those commodities that are vastly adopted to claim status with deliberate less value. Furthermore, luxury items that are unpopular among the general public are more desirable since they confer a higher status utility through emphasizing on the fundamental status attribute in regards to distinctive and exclusive aspects. Moreover, Heller et al. (1973, p. 275) point out that to maintain individual independence; snob consumers consider the personal status and freedom. Thus, they will avoid buying goods when someone tries to convince them to buy a particular product. Therefore, a marketer should utilize courteous strategies and strive to respect the freedom and social status of snob consumers to persuade them to purchase specific brands (Gould and Barak, p.394). In other words, status seeking traits will influence the relationship between snob consumption behaviour and dark personality.
3.4.3 Consumers’ susceptibility to normative influence
H4c: CSNI will negatively moderate the impact of (a) narcissism, (b) Machiavellianism, (c) psychopathy on snob consumption behaviour
Corner and Jeanne (1997, p. 1) argue that desire to own a particular product decreases when the general public demonstrates an increase in consumption of that good, thus exhibiting how social norms allocate status influences the behaviour of the snob consumers. Past studies described the perceived luxury consumption of consumers as the technique used to increase social impression. However, the susceptibility of consumers to interpersonal influence is recognized in two dimensions including informative and normative influence (Kastanakis and Balabanis 2015, p.2150). Consumers’ susceptibility to normative influence (CSNI) defines the desire to strengthen individual’s image with significant others through use and acquisition of brands and products. On the other hand, Deutsch and Gerard (1955, p. 631) described informative influence as the ability to acquire information from significant others, which can increase by either acquiring conjectures through observing the behaviour of others or by getting information from knowledgeable people. Therefore, CSNI exhibits a social orientation, which is highly related to snob effect.
3. 4.4 Gender variation
H5: Gender differences will moderate the impact of (a) narcissism, (b) Machiavellianism, (c) psychopathy on snob consumption behaviour.
Typically, past studies on gender differences in actions of the consumer propose that female and male consumption trend and pattern might differ in regards to their distinctive life orientations (Gronmo 1988, p. 90). Furthermore, men seem to affirm on the individualistic personality of self-determination by behaving correspondingly to “performance-motivated acting” and “task-oriented thinking.” On the other hand, women focus more on cooperative orientation since they tend to conform their identity through social and emotional interaction with significant others (Salmela 2010, p. 32). Therefore, when the comparison is made between the genders, women are more susceptible to luxury goods that offer status value, hedonic, and uniqueness. In summary, luxury products attempt to provide a higher level of product distinctiveness and status utility to female customers.
3.4.5 Culture variation
H6: Cultural differences will moderate the impact of (a) narcissism, (b) Machiavellianism, (c) psychopathy on snob consumption behaviour.
The snob behaviour is likely to be identified in two ways. Firstly, Mason (1981, p. 43) argues that snob effect can be determined when consumers who are status sensitive reject a particular brand when the general public seems to increase their consumption on that product. Secondly, the behaviour of snob consumption takes place when a new prestige brand is introduced in the market, and the snob will purchase the product first to take advantage of the small number of consumers at that moment (Vigneron and Johnson 1999, p. 49). However, the snob effect is influenced by culture. For instance, British and Chinese consumers have different snob values. British consumers convey their prestige through differentiating themselves from other people, hence will stop using or purchasing brands when the brands turn out to be common among the majority. On the other hand, in the Chinese market, consumer values the second snob of motivation as becoming the first to own the product is profoundly admired by the public (Wang and Zhao 2014, p. 56). Furthermore, Wang and Zhao (2014, p. 56) state that western consumers focus more on the value of uniqueness, while people in Eastern cultures seek to conform their behaviour of consumption to others.
CONCLUSION
From the research, it is clear that people with dark triad traits are focused mainly on self-interest and manipulation of others for selfish gain. They also focus on their image that is the impression they create amongst their peers. They always aim to impress and are always striving to emulate people who are higher up in the social hierarchy than themselves
