Structuralism is a psychological school that focuses on breaking down the mental process into their most basic elements. For instance, in understanding the elements of consciousness, researchers have established introspections as an appropriate method. Wilhelm Wundt founded structuralism and later modified, developed and re-established by one of his students Edward Titchener. Being reliant on Titchener’s work as the first psychological school, structuralism faded away following the demise of Titchener (Poythress, 2012). Being the first school of thought structuralism was associated with certain strengths in as far as scientific and psychological research and education is concerned.
Structuralism implies that it is possible to study the basic elements of the human consciousness to come up with a classification of conscious experiences scientifically. Studies have pointed out that structuralism has the advantage of having a rigorous and scientific approach to psychology, through the demonstration that mental events and thoughts can be quantified. Based on a periodic table containing the elements of sensations, individuals can be able to identify and describe their exact experience as they engage in mental activities. Considering, religious and biblical studies, for instance, Poythress (2012) determined that since totalities could be explained regarding partial units the occurrence of single biblical phenomena can be adequately used to explain larger happenings in the contemporary society. This study cites instances of mental narratives used in the biblical studies to imply a larger consciousness needs in the society.
The argument presented by Poythress makes a good case for the advantages of Structuralism. Examining the basic elements of a notion to determine its impact in the contemporary society is important as it implies divergent thinking in scientific research. The researcher of a particular behaviour does not have to carry out prolonged experiments with multiples subjects to come up with appropriate conclusions on the subject matter being examined. Instead, they only have to evaluate the mental depictions of the various participants examined and made appropriate conclusions in the relevant psychological field.
Functionalism
Functionalism was formed as a reaction to the school of structuralism by William James and also based on the revolutionary theory advanced by Charles Darwin. Regarded to be more systematic, organized and more accurate functionalism focused on the purpose of consciousness and behaviour rather than the elements. The popularity of functionalism and its impact on education is attributed to the fact that it emphasized on individual differences. The benefits and advantages of functionalism are observed in the works of its famous believers including John Dewey that significantly shaped applied psychology, behaviourism and the educational system. Based on the acknowledgement of the differences of individuals and purpose for education, John Dewey designed the belief that learning for children should be based on their developmental preparation level.
Functionalism is therefore beneficial for the studies of any discipline today based on its advantages over the diminished structuralism. In studies and research, the differential approach to issues ensuring convergence to a thematic conclusion is as a result of functionalism. For examples in sociological studies, the various ways by which researchers view the same sociological problem or phenomena is an important aspect outlined in functionalism. Therefore, in subjects such as sociological studies it functionalism tends to relate the different aspects of social phenomena to one another by establishing important social links that exist between them. Through functionalism, the researcher in sociology understands that within a society what happens in one part of it directly or indirectly affects what happens in another part. As a result of functionalism, the researcher can understand the significance of examining various events within a social circle with the aim of establishing a common causative or functional factor linking these events.
Structuralism and Functionalism in Sociology
Therefore, whereas, structuralism makes use mental indicators to determine the occurrence of particular events within the contemporary society, functionalism tends to withdraw multiples conclusions from various interlinked events within the broader society. Examining the basic elements of a notion to determine its impact in the contemporary society is important as it implies divergent thinking in scientific research. The researcher of a particular behaviour does not have to carry out prolonged experiments with multiples subjects to come up with appropriate conclusions on the subject matter being examined. Functionalism defines that the net structure of the society is a summation of the various social relationships as defined by the various system norms including education, health, and political systems. Structuralism as an approach makes use of the analysis of individual elements of thought to make a research conclusion on the sociobiological aspect being examined in the society. Usually, the presumed individual elements are assumed to be the societal notions on the particular sociological aspect being examined. Functionalism, however, connects the various aspects of the sociological subject being examined from various parts of the society to make relevant deductions. The differences in the approaches adopted by these psychological schools harbour an explanation why structuralism has been dropped since then and functionalism modified to enhance the understanding of various psychological aspects of learning and research.
Psychobiology
Whereas the various psychological schools deal with the mind and thoughts that emanate from it, there is a valid argument that the existence of the mind is dependent on the body in which it resides. Understanding the relations between the mind and the body has been viewed to be an important aspect of understanding psychology in an area known as psychobiology. Psychobiology defines the interactions that happen between behaviour and biological systems and defines the relations between parameters such as cognition and emotion to biological events in the human body. This gives psychology a new perspective which is uniquely validated by the fact that the mind is a by-product of the process that occurs within the brain.
Various studies have argued whether the brain has the capability of producing the mind or not. Materialists suggest that the mind is a material and physical process that is a product of the functioning of the brain (Moreira-Almeida " Araujo, 2015). Although this in contrast to the Platonic view of the mind being a separate entity, that is probably more superior to the brain, various contemporary studies suggest that the mind-brain relationship is an established scientific fact.
Various studies have established the intimate connection between the mind and the brain control of the body. As Lombrozo (2014) established, the mind is connected to the brain such that injuries or chemical changes made to the brain can result in changes in the perceptual experience, personality and cognitive abilities of an individual. This validates the notion that the mind is the outcome of what the brain does. Understanding the mind as an entity of human psychology would, therefore, call for investigating the brain and its related neuroscience.
In trying to establish the relationship within the mind-brain dyad, Singh and Singh (2011) determined that ‘the brain is the structural correlate of the mind, and the mind the functional correlate of the brain.’ They further explore that to understand the sense of the relationship between both entities it is important to establish their operation in external and internal environments as well as the consciousness. Initiating and understanding the relationships between the physical changes in the brain and the operations of the mind is therefore useful in establishing the relationship between the brain and the mind.
Various concepts derived from the philosophy of the mind connect to the actions initiated by the human brain. For instance, cognition and emotions connect to motive and intentions and other ethical issues related to both (Moreira-Almeida " Araujo, 2015). This demonstrates that indeed the actions of the brain such as cognition and emotion can induce mental process such as motives and intentions of action. Further, science has established that there are brain areas that directly control mental processes such as thoughts, creativity, spirituality and moral action.
The cerebrum is a segment of the brain that is tasked with controlling such higher functions and functions in close coordination with the neuroendocrine system in controlling the response of the brain to stress, feeling and thoughts. It has also been determined that the various pathological conditions affecting the brain due to toxic, infectious, metabolic and traumatic conditions have significant and equally negative implications on the human thought and mental functioning (Moreira-Almeida " Araujo, 2015). This evidence is further supported by the examination and exploration of the brain by psychiatrists when seeking for interventions for alleviating psychiatric conditions.
It is, therefore, evident that the relationship between the brain and the mind is essential and there may be no mind without the existence of the brain. The most basic understanding of this claim is based on the fact that there may be no human or organism existence or function without a brain, hence no one to manifest thoughts. Further, the basis of understanding the mind by psychologists is based on understanding the translations of the thought into action which is specifically executed by the brain. The misunderstanding of the importance of the brain about the mind probably rises from the interchangeable use of the two terms. In most studies, psychologists have been quoted using the mind when having the intention to mention the brain.
Despite the misunderstandings, it is important to understand that the brain, is an essential connection between the mind and the external environment of existence. The mind being the consciousness of thought it needs the brain to encode the happenings of the external and internal environments to make sense or non-sense of a particular happening. The interactions that happen between behaviour and biological systems define the relations between parameters such as cognition and emotion to biological events in the human body. This gives psychology a new perspective which is uniquely validated by the fact that the mind is a by-product of the process that occurs within the brain. Any aberrations in the functioning of the brain would result in misguided notions regarding the environment by the mind, while the opposite is true for the perfect interpretations that would result in the perfect or near perfect notions.
Health Psychology and Nature
The psychological well-being of an individual depends on the correct coordination of the functions of both the mind and the brain (Larson " Kreitzer, 2018). With regards to the wellness
of the brain and the mind, research has established that the natural environment can massively impact the working of the nervous and immune systems of the body, resulting in changes in mood, emotion and motives. For instance, negatives stressors from a negative environment can affect the working of the brain such that an individual feels anxious and sad. Similarly, positive indicators from the environment can instil positive thinking and enrichment of the mind, well-being and good health. Therefore, health psychology evaluates the mechanisms of well-being through the functioning of the brain and the mind. Integrating the aspect of nature therein makes it possible to relate the importance of nature to the well-being of an individual.
In determining the basis of the human-nature relationship and its role in the health of individuals, Seymour (2016) argues that the role of the human-nature relationship in achieving optimal health requires an in-depth understanding based on an interdisciplinary perspective that examines health and the human-nature interface. This approach is key in research seeking to determine the human-nature relationship that links human preferences for natural environment-dominated scenes, the preservation of and sustainability of natural resources, and the various health benefits derived from the environment.
This relationship between the humans and the natural environment can be discussed based on related and contributing research fields including, evolutionary biology, evolutionary psychology, environmentalism and social economics. The aspects reveal the connection of the human to the natural environment and could be used to explain the feeling of being part of nature that various humans feel. This connection can be related to the social and mental aspects of the definition of health, which are concerned with the individual’s emotional, physical and cognitive well-being.
Therefore, defining health from the perspective of cognitive and emotional well-being can be used to link nature and well-being or health. As already established, the well-being of an individual has everything to do with various nature-related variables including their conditions of living and access to basic needs. Regarding the living conditions, research has determined that exposure to nature is important in the effective control of the body rhythms and ensures vitality in the physique of an individual. This explains the concept of taking long walks in forests, lying on the earth and swimming in water. Further, aesthetic experiences including natural movements, exposure to natural sounds and engagement of children in green and natural playground settings are important for their mental wellness. Similar insights have been determined for increased cohesion, harmony and social ties for communities living within green spaces.
Various medical researchers have examined the impact of nature on the activation and positive functioning of the human brain. In a study by Kim et al. (2010), 30 participants who had previously had experiences in rural and urban lifestyles were engaged in viewing still photographs that depicted urban and rural environments and the response assessed using magnetic resonance imaging technique to determine the human brain activation by eco-friendliness. The researchers observed that the activation of the cingulate gyrus, putamen, globus pallidus and the caudate nucleus head dominated during the viewing of photographs depicting the rural scenery. These are important segments of the brain that are associated with motor and activity of the individual. During the urban scenery viewing, the areas of the brain predominantly activated were the hippocampus, amygdala and the parahippocampus. Thes areas are associated with emotion. The researcher concluded that there was an inherent preference for living in a nature-friendly environment (Kim et al., 2010). These observations have important inferences in the study of the importance of nature on the well-being of the individual.
The tendency for nature to soothe, socially unite and enhance health is important especially for the effective growth and development of children. According to research, limiting the number of hours children spend outside the house may result in serious health implications. These implications associated with health as well mental growth, and may include obesity, irregular sleep rhythms, behavioural challenges, emotional instability, and poor creativity and academic performance. These problems develop when the guiding adults deny the children outdoor access.
The probability of developing these challenges emphasizes on the need to let the children engage in more controlled outdoor activities and interact with nature through outdoor sports, studying next to the window, taking nature walks around the area of residence. Various experiences including natural movements, exposure to natural sounds and engagement of children in green and natural playground settings are important for their mental wellness. Similar insights have been determined for increased cohesion, harmony and social ties for children living within green spaces. Having access to these areas activate the preferred areas of the brain will be resulting in a more balanced and improved mental well-being of the children. This also emphasizes the residential areas in which the children live.
References
Kim, G. et al. (2014). Brain activation patterns associated with the human comfortability of residential environments: 3.0-T functional MRI. Neuroreport, 25 (12): 915-920
Larson, J " Kreitzer, M. (2018). How does nature impact our wellbeing? University of Minnesota. Retrieved from https://www.takingcharge.csh.umn.edu/enhance-your-wellbeing/enviroment/nature-and-us/how-does-nature-impact-our-welbeing
Lombrozo, T. (2014). The mind is just the brain. Edge. Retrieved from https://www.edge.org/response-detail/25290
Moreira-Almeida, A. " Araujo, S. (2015). Does the brain produce the mind? A survey of psychiatrists’ opinions. Archives of Clinical Psychiatry, 42(3).
Poythress, V. (2012). Structuralism and biblical studies. Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, 21 (3): 221-237. Retrieved from https://frame-poythress.org/structuralism-and-biblical-studies/
Singh, A " Singh, S. (2011). Brain-mind dyad, human experience, the consciousness tetrad and lattice of mental operations: And further, the need to integrate knowledge from diverse disciplines. Mens Sana Monographs, 9(1): 6-41
Seymour, V. (2016). The human-nature relationship and its impact on health: A critical review. Front Public Health, 4:260
