Roman architecture represents the organization mindset, restless energy, and practical character of its creators including architects, emperors, and artists. The character of Rome primarily reflects its powerfulness and the success of its leaders in imperialism which entails the expansion of the Roman Empire to conquer the Mediterranean as well as the larger Western Europe region (Sear 12). As such, the Roman Architects strived to strike a balance between articulating the greatness and nobleness of Rome while enhancing the well-being of the society. To achieve this objective, the architects adopted numerous construction techniques including the use of concrete, vaults, domes, and the arch. As a result, the Roman architects and engineers managed to put up some of the most splendid public buildings which are still recognized and studies to date in the History of Architecture. Some of these buildings include public baths, monuments, triumphal arches, amphitheaters, basilicas, and temples (Stamper 15). Additionally, architects, planners, and engineers initiated numerous urban planning infrastructure during the Pax Romana (Roman Peace) including vast road networks, bridges, drainage systems, aqueducts, and urban blueprints. Arguably, the Roman Architecture has had the most impact in the history of art and architecture as well as the most influence on the European culture compared to the Greek and Egyptian architecture (Robertson et al. 13).
Characteristics of the Roman Architecture
Roman architecture was monumental or consisted of huge earth or stone structures which were either used as communal spaces or public buildings rather than for private residences (Cartwright 2018). Simply put, the architecture of the city was colossal to illustrate the immense power of the Romans. These monumental structures were designed to reflect Rome as the ‘Eternal City’, the ‘Mighty Rome’, or the empire that had conquered the Western world, Egypt and Greece, Carthage and Gaul for over six centuries. Further, the monumental architecture of the city represented the capital of the great Caesars, giver of military science, morals, and laws to the West, as well as the unconquered home of magnificence, spectacle, and grandeur, and splendid art executed by enslaved persons (Cartwright 2018).
However, the structural engineering and monumental architecture of Rome produced minimal contributions to the field of aesthetics and creative arts since the city outsourced a significant number of painters, decorators, and sculptors from Greece (Oleson 3). Authentic Roman aesthetics are more profound in such small states as Siena and Sumeria. The emphasis on grandeur in the Roman architecture not only resulted in shallow artwork but also an imitation of the Greek architecture and ornamental sculptures coupled with misused veneers and scraps. As a result, the architecture of Rome is considered as practical reasonableness and Hellenic moderation (Cartwright 2018).
Roman architecture was utilitarian and practical owing to the pragmatic spirit of the Romans (Sear 16). The architects and engineers, therefore, recognized the need for greater economy of materials while building the city’s colossal structures. Other than using huge blocks of brick and stone in erecting buildings that reached high altitudes such as those used in putting up the Egyptian pyramids, the Romans made numerous inventions such as the use of the arch construction technology and concrete to minimize the use of construction materials. These inventions allowed the architects to build multi-storey structures to maximize the use of space. The architecture of Rome also utilized durable materials such as ceramic which can last for centuries without having to be replaced. Further, Roman architecture recognized the need for creating more buildings for public use other than for religious purposes. The Roman engineers did not have to rely on the landscape to create amphitheaters as was the case in Greek architecture. Instead, they modified the landscape to meet their needs (Oleson 3).
The Roman Empire had a significant interest in engineering and public works. The renowned Roman roads, for instance, were important in their imperialism efforts, especially in Europe. The roads were not only used to move the Roman troops to conquer Western Europe but also in carrying out trade in the region. The well-made, expertly-engineered, straight, and wounded around natural obstacles roads also made it easy for the Emperors to rule through sending orders and messages (Oleson 3).
A Roman road (Cartwright 2018).
The Roman bridges allowed for permanent river crossing thus making navigation easy. Similarly, the Roman aqueducts entailed the use of arcades to convey water from mountain, stream, and lake sources to cities in order to meet the needs of the growing population. Built during the rule of Emperor Trajan, the aqueducts were designed to convey water using gravitational force. Further, the architects and engineers incorporated arches in the design of aqueducts to allow for an even distribution of weight throughout the structure as well as a steady downward water flow.
Roman aqueducts (Khan Academy 2018).
Amphitheaters and Circus Maximus in the Roman Empire were particularly used for mass entertainment as opposed to art and cultural expression in the Greek era (Bieber 21). Further, the amphitheaters consisted only of the performance arenas and theatres for hosting spectators and had no religious significance.
The Colosseum and Circus Maximus respectively (Bieber 22).
Public baths served as community centers and were commonly attached to conference rooms, spas, swimming pools, gyms, and libraries.
Baths of Caracalla (Barchiesi 12).
The Hadrian’s or Roman wall was built to fortify the borders of Rome due to the rising cost of protecting the empire from intruders especially the Scotland Picts. The Roman Empire was initially protected by natural features including the sea, deserts, and mountains as well as the army. The weak areas of the territory were further protected using a 15ft wall.
The Hadrian’s wall (Cartwright 2018).
Roman architecture was propagandistic and commemorative. Public monuments to commemorate the achievements of its emperors in their imperialism efforts. For instance, the Arch of Augustus was built in Rome to honor the emperor’s conquest over the Parthians. Similarly, the Arch of Titus was erected in the Forum Romanum to commemorate Rome’s victory over Jerusalem (Knight 5). The Augustan period was characterized by a significant increase in building activities, extravagant utilization of marble in construction, and design innovations which signified a prospering Rome that was breaking away from the rigidity of prior civilizations. The period also saw a rise in imperial patronage across the Roman Empire which gave rise to more impressive and bigger buildings. In turn, the elegant built forms became a propaganda or presumption that the Roman Empire was culturally superior and mighty.
The Arch of Titus (Knight 1).
The use of Roman Arches which traces back to the Cloaca Maxima or ancient sewage system is arguably one of the most notable practical application and utilization of the qualities of an arch (Neumeister 24). The Roman architects and engineers explored the use of arches to achieve a significant milestone in building sewers, aqueducts, bridges, triumphal arches, palaces, temples, and amphitheaters (Stamper 15). The application of the arch is also manifested in such transformations as cupolas and domes, vaulted building systems, roofs, corridors, and floors as well as other building parts including windows, doorways, utility, and ornamentation which required an economy of labor and material. Unlike in the prior civilizations where arches were confined to temples, the Roman Arch was more diversified and was extensively used in almost every private and civic buildings and structures such as the Colosseum. The arch was also constructed using either brick, stone, or the newly invented concrete.
Initial versus current perspective of Roman vaulting and arches in the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine, Rome (Khan Academy 2018).
The originality of the Roman Construction techniques
The Roman Empire advanced one of the greatest advancements in technology that could not be matched by other Empires at the time. These territories, therefore, did not pose a major threat to the Roman Empire with the exception of the Parthian Kingdom (Sear 13). Roman architecture, in an attempt to continue the legacy of the Greek architects and Roman traditions, borrowed some aspects these earlier civilizations especially the architectural orders. However, the Romans came up with new inventions aimed at meeting the practical socioeconomic needs emerging from imperialism such as economy of materials and labor (Fazio 26).
The Roman construction techniques are original in that the new innovative building materials and construction technologies were combined in a creative and unique design with the existing techniques to produce an array of new building structures. Such developments include amphitheaters, residential housing, granary buildings, residential housing blocks, monumental aqueducts, triumphal arches, and basilicas (Oleson 12). Simply put, the Roman architects adopted the elements and aspects of the earlier civilization in their abstract form and advanced them to a more sophisticated form. The arch, for instance, is presumed to be an invention of the Etruscans, the Romans harnessed its desirable structural properties in distributing weight to achieve huge spans in constructing bridges and aqueducts (Cartwright 2018). As well, the arch was transformed into vaults and domes which made it possible for creating huge interior spaces and building of the roofs and ceilings of monumental architectural buildings as a show of the power of the Roman Empire.
The dome and vaulted ceilings in the Pantheon, Rome (Cartwright 2018).
The Greek columns and the Etruscan arch were also utilized as structural elements to erect multi-storey structures such as the Colosseum and support the various levels of the seating area.
Cross-sections of the Colosseum (Cartwright 2018).
The Late Republic period saw the Romans invent new construction materials that were not only utilized in their buildings and those of their conquerors but also used to date. For instance, cement was generated from a mix of lime mortar and volcanic dust. The cement was subsequently hardened into concrete which was primarily used in putting up building walls. Further, due to the undesirable aesthetic qualities of concrete, the architects cladded it with baked clay bricks or marble slabs. The durability and strength of concrete are manifested in the long existence of the Roman monument in Western Europe (Giavarini 8).
Benefits offered by the Romans to their conquerors
One of the most remarkable impacts of the Romans on their conquerors was giving them a Roman heritage comprising mainly of architectural and engineering pieces which are presently recognized as world heritage sites by UNESCO (Roth 11). These sites enhance the tourism industry and cultural heritage of the places where they are located. The invention of concrete and use of arches and bricks in Roman Architecture significantly influenced the subsequent building construction of the West up to the present day (McFadden 2018).
The understanding and skills of the Roman architects and engineers regarding the use of arches, vaults, and domes were further transferred onto their conquerors including the design of the Hagia Sophia (Byzantine art), St. Paul’s Cathedral (Baroque architecture) Brunelleschi Filippo’s Florence Cathedral (Renaissance architecture), onion domes of St. Basil’s Cathedral in Moscow, as well as inspiring Neoclassical architecture globally (Cartwright 2018). Further, the California State Capitol, Sacramento building (1860-1874), Mable Arch, London (1833), and the Pantheon, Paris (1790) are some of the examples of the influences of Roman architecture (McFadden 2018).
California State Capitol, Sacramento building (McFadden 2018)
Mable Arch, London (McFadden 2018)
Pantheon, Paris (McFadden 2018)
Additionally, the Roman roads, aqueducts, and bridges became the models that were assumed by later engineers and architectures across the globe.
Roman bridge in Extremadura, Spain (Khan Academy 2018).
The response of Romans to their urban culture
The urban culture of Rome was largely influenced by the geographical location and history of the area (Neumeister 21). Geographically, Rome is strategically located on a valley surrounded by hills on either side. Therefore, the steep hills served as hideout points for the Roman community during the war in the early stages of imperialism. Further, river Tiber acted as a unifying factor of people from either side of the valley who engaged in trading activities. The historically significant trade among community members thus informed the design of most Roman towns which comprised of a Forum where the exchange of goods took place to enhance the economic prosperity of the empire. On the floor of the valley was a floodplain which often became marshy. The floodplain was later developed to the cloaca maxima sewer channel which is still in use to date.
Regarding social culture, Rome is historically a classy society where the slaves, the poor, and the affluent lived in separate households. In the same way, the city of Rome comprises of tightly-packed private dwelling for the common persons and large townhouses complete with atria and gardens for the wealthier group. The building scale comprised of enormous buildings to reflect the ideological aspect of the urban culture which entails showing the power of the city’s legends. Traditionally, the material aspect of the Roman urban culture involved community living and sharing with the poor. As such, the urban planners provided for numerous civic buildings, public baths, theatres, and temples to promote public life into the city (Neumeister 28).
Rating the engineering skills of the Romans
While the Greek and other ancient civilization architects derived the elementary design templates, the Roman architects were responsible for the establishment of the basic prototypes of engineering (Vitruvius 10). The engineering skills of the Romans are especially manifested in the mastery of the domes, vaults, and arches which formed the foundation for most monumental architecture in the Roman Empire. Further, the Roman engineering skills not only involved the mastery of the basic design forms but the exploration of techniques and materials such as experimenting with brick, stone, and concrete in building aqueducts and bridges. Importantly, the structures erected by the Roman engineers were designed to stand the test of time (Oleson 3). To this end, durable materials such as marble and concrete were used in construction works as manifested in the long existence of the Roman monument in Western Europe.
Conclusion
Roman architecture has significantly contributed to some of the most magnificent structures that have stood the test of time. The engineering and architectural skills of the Romans coupled with the exploration of various construction techniques and materials transformed the limitations of physics into architectural art forms. In its imperialism efforts, these colossal and magnificent designs reflected Rome as a prosperous, mighty, and unconquerable empire. Importantly, the invention and use of concrete, arches, and bricks by the Romans in the construction of basilicas and amphitheaters has since had a significant influence on Western Architecture to date.
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