tradition and african culture

Continental drift is the rotation of the earth's continents relative to each other, causing them to drift transversely on the ocean floor (Walton, 2013). In other terms, continental drift is a term used to explain how geologists thought continents drifted over time. Abraham Ortelius explained the theory that continents had broken apart for the first time in 1596. (Walton, 2013). As a result, after some time, the idea was well-researched and articulately formulated by Alfred Wegener in 1912. It is important to highlight that this theory was overruled at a later date due to the fact that it lacked mechanism (Runcorn, 2013).
One of the reasons why Africa is believed to be the keystone of continent drift hypothesis was traces of evidence supporting this idea found there. For example, according to research carried out by Wegener, fossils of ancient reptiles mesosaurus were only found, Africa. However, further research further revealed that mesosaurs were also found in Southern America. As part of the research, it was believed that presence of mesosaurus meant that there was habitat with lakes and rivers. Furthermore, when Weneger researched on stratigraphy and mountain ranges, he found out that rocks on the east coast of South America, as well as that of the west coast of Africa, fitted together (Walton, 2013).
Additionally, Africa was said to be the keystone of continent drift hypothesis as a result of the movement of tectonic plates. Plants and animal fossils that are frequently found on the shores of Africa. Most importantly, many distinctive discoveries such as reptile Lystrosaurus was first discovered in Africa (Runcorn, 2013). At some point, animals such as earthworm families were first discovered in Africa and later in South America.
Researchers such as Wegener believed that Africa was the origin of continental drift theory, which inspired their study in that region. For example, researchers stated that after many years, slab pull and ridge-push were seen to originate from Africa and subsequently causing separation between the two continents; Africa and South America. Other evidence supporting continental drift in Africa was a large spread of Permo-carboniferous sediment (Walton, 2013). Nonetheless, this was also later found in Arabia, India, and Australia among other parts of the world. With such radical researches and studies being first performed in Africa, it is evidence that this was place people believed was the genesis of all sorts of continental drift theory (Runcorn, 2013).
It is important to note that continental drift hypothesis affected development and migration of humans in different ways. Firstly, people moved to the places that had no traces of dangerous animals that could affect their life (Walton, 2013). Conversely, people also settled in locations that were safe and secure in terms of the structure of land and rock arrangement. At some point, when strange hypothesis and discoveries, people living in Africa moved to other continents for their safety and new environment (Runcorn, 2013).
In conclusion, it is evident that Africa is the keystone of continental hypothesis considering the number of studies as well as discoveries performed therein. Work of researchers Ortelius and Weneger among other key personals proved that in deed Africa was center stage for such figurative activities. Continental drift also affected the migration as well as the development of people in different approaches.

Question 2. Explain the effect of trade routes and centers on African culture and society. What goods and resources became popular and influential as a result?
There were various effects both positive and negative on African culture and society. For example, in sub-Saharan Africa, trade of activities led to the growth of Islam culture. This religion originated from the Middle East and North Africa as well as Southern Asia. As a result, there was an improved level of socialization among people participating in trade activities. Moreover, Islamic religion influenced the culture of people in the various station they visited in terms of clothing, food, and language used (Topik & Pomeranz, 2014). Most important to note is that there was the emergence of economic and political patterns in different areas marked for trade routes.
There were development and emergence of social and technological changes in many parts of Africa, especially where trade routes and centers were. On the aspect of social changes, people started to learn a new language, which was experienced in almost every trade centers. In addition, intermarriages among different communities also took place (Hopkins, 2014).This was due to the fact that there was a high level of interaction and understanding among different communities.
Emergence and formation of powerful states, for example, Mali and Songhay were also as a result of trade activities. In various parts of West Africa, development of city-states occurred as fastened by merchant communities especially on Indian Ocean of East Africa. As earlier stated, technology was slowly mushrooming in a different part of Africa, however, the reception and understanding of benefits accrued were differently. Later, when western Europeans, that is the Portuguese, arrived in Africa in the 15th century, there was radical improvement in African economy.
Trade routes and centers also opened room for incorporation among dominating communities. For example, the Northern Africa and East Africa were absorbed into the Arab Muslim world. There was the rise of political power and freshly built centers of civilization in sub-Saharan Africa which opened an avenue for various opportunities of different communities (Hopkins, 2014).
Other than Islamic religion, interaction experienced in trade centers led to the rise of Christianity. For instance, Christianity was initially experienced in Egypt and Ethiopia and later spread to other parts of African communities. The spread of Christianity was welcomed by many communities considering the number of benefits related therein. For example, Europeans who taught African about Christianity offered modern clothes and food (Topik & Pomeranz, 2014).
On the other hand, trade centers offered avenues for the slave trade. In West Africa, slave trade led to ignition and spread of war among various communities. This was motivated by the fact European never went to look for their own slaves but rather took African slaves from coastal kingdoms (Topik & Pomeranz, 2014). Consequently, kingdoms were offered with guns in exchange for slaves to strengthen their war capacity.
In a nutshell, the effect of trade routes and centers were for both ends, that is, both positive and negative. Intermarriages, spread of languages and learning new culture, technological and social benefits were positive effects achieved. The spread of slave trade was one of the main negative effects of trade centers in Africa. Such effects reveal goods and influential that became popular during this engagement.



Question 3. Explain the development of languages in early African societies. What affect did language development have on the economic system of urban areas and trade centers across the continent?
Presently, there is over an average of 1250 to 2100 languages spoken in Africa. The history of the development of each of these language has their own unique classification (Freund, 2016). For instance, the Bantu speakers practiced agriculture and fishing. In addition, they were cattle keepers such as goats and cattle while the leadership of their villages was solely dependent on the organization of council of elders. In more than a year ago, Bantu speaking community rose and expanded in another part of Africa (Freund, 2016). Other groups of language in Africa include; Afro-Asiatic languages in North and Horn of Africa, Austronesian language used in Madagascar, the Indo-European language in South Africa and Namibia, Khoe language, Niger-Congo language, and Nilo-Saharan languages (Freund, 2016).
In the 13th century, cattle keepers and iron smugglers group of Bantu people had reached the southern part of the continent. Slowly by slowly, the Bantu speakers spread to other parts of sub-Saharan Africa even though the areas were dominated by none-Bantu speaking communities. With time, Bantu dominated in southern and central Africa to make it one of widely spoken language in Africa. Just like Bantu, many other languages in Africa developed in a similar manner (Iliffe, 2017). For example, the use and spread of Swahili languages in Eastern Africa were highly characterized by trading activities in the region. Additionally, some of the languages used in North and West Africa such as French was due to the settlement of Europeans in that region, who were colonizers. In other cases, development of language was linked to religious practices. For example, Islamic communities were often linked to a certain language (Freund, 2016). All in all, the development and spread of languages used in many African communities were as a result of migration and resettlement of people in different part of Africa.
Language development in Africa just like any other part of the world had economic impacts on urban areas and trade centers. First, the level of interaction as well as improved communication was experienced (Iliffe, 2017). Secondly, trade expanded in various part of Africa which meant that many opportunities were opened. In addition, there was a general expansion of urban areas in terms of structures and facilities. When this happens, people also engage in economic powered activities such as agriculture and livestock keeping to mention but a few. In addition, the number of urban areas and trade centers across Africa increased successfully. This meant that more people were engaging in trade and positive impact on the economy was achieved (Freund, 2016). In the urban areas, government structures and places of the resident were built.
In conclusion, it is clear that development of languages in the early African culture had a unique direction. Some languages were developed as communities practiced their economic activities such as cattle rearing, which provided them with an opportunity to transverse every part of Africa. Trade, religion and inter-racial socialization were the main avenues responsible for the development of languages in African societies. Lastly, there were various effects of language development, especially on urban and trade avenues. These include; expansion of trade centers, improvement of economic activities, improvement of towns structures, and agriculture.




References
Freund, B. (2016). The making of contemporary Africa: the development of African society since 1800. Palgrave Macmillan.
Hopkins, A. G. (2014). An economic history of West Africa. Routledge.
Iliffe, J. (2017). Africans: the history of a continent (Vol. 137). Cambridge University Press.
Runcorn, S. K. (Ed.). (2013). Continental drift (Vol. 3). Elsevier
Topik, S., & Pomeranz, K. (2014). The world that trade created: Society, culture and the world economy, 1400 to the present. Routledge.
Walton, D. W. (Ed.). (2013). Antarctica: global science from a Frozen Continent. Cambridge University Press.