Emergence of Countries in Western Europe: Print Technology
One of the main reasons for the emergence of countries in Western Europe is print technology. In fact, more than twenty million books had been produced by the year 1500, which led to the development of mechanical replication and a strong sense of belonging to a specific region under government. Due to the large amount of books, the European market experienced fierce rivalry, opening the door for wealthy capitalists to assume control. The main objective of the book dealers was to turn a profit, which strengthened the idea of capitalism throughout Europe. Furthermore, language barrier in the target market zones fostered the idea of vernacularization, which was primarily meant to translate the published books into different languages. Anderson opines that "the revolutionary vernacularizing thrust of capitalism was given further impetus by three extraneous factors, two of which contributed directly to the rise of national consciousness" (40-41). Before the print capitalism, Rome could easily win against its rivals given that it could access information early before its rivals and even conduct research on the strengths and weaknesses of its enemies. The concept resulted in the drawing of imagined political communities.
Translating Books and Vernacularization
Translating the printed books into different languages such as German resulted in the spread of some vernaculars. The translators were compelled to learn other languages, thus making it possible to create an imagined political community. However, due to capitalism, the publishers had to focus on the available and potential market before translating the books. Consequently, some of the languages that were regarded as minor could not be considered for publication. Capitalism fostered the assembling of related vernaculars, thus necessitating the need to emphasize on syntaxes, grammars, and the reproduction of print languages. Anderson affirms "the print languages laid the basis for national sensuousness…" (46). For instance, the Englishes, Frenches, and the Spanishes became capable of comprehending one another in a conversation.
Question 2
Ideologies Explaining Stratification and De-commodification of Social Welfare State
The political economies of a welfare state may not be able to provide the necessary answers with regards to the causes of the development. There exist three ideologies that can be used to explain the idea of stratification and de-commodification of the social welfare state. They include corporatist, social democratic, and liberal. However, these ideologies exhibit major differences amongst them in terms of stratification and de-commodification. Esping-Anderson's asserts that "de-commodification refers either to the service rendered, or the status of a person, but in both cases, it signifies the degree to which distribution is dispatched from the market mechanism" (21). Therefore, it means that an insignificant social assistance may not be considered as de-commodification. Moreover, social stratification involves a competition between classes which are defined by one's living conditions. An individual's status in terms of class position will compete with his or her citizenship.
Corporatist Ideology
The corporatists perceive the significance of the establishment of privileged welfares for the benefit of the civil service as a necessary step towards the attainment of personal goals. In fact, it is one of the best strategies for gaining state recognition, thus complying with the idea of de-commodification and stratification. Nevertheless, social democrats emphasize on the concept that parliament can not implement socialization. The leading roles of parliament include the realization of justice, equality, and freedom, marking significant difference the corporatist's ideology. Remarkably, Esping-Anderson asserts ", the market was the superior means for the abolition of class, inequality, and privilege" (11). This means that for the case of liberal ideology, a few people can amass wealth and control the poor, an idea that is different from social democrats and corporatists.
Part B: Question 1
Role of Government in US Governance
The current US governance is mainly based on the existing constitution. Therefore, the government has a role in ensuring that the citizens have been helped to meet their present and future goals. For instance, President Donald Trump's government considered it necessary to reduce the costs of welfare programs and medication, thus allowing the populace to save on such expenses. Nevertheless, the government's decision to focus on the proposed cuts can be associated with the ideologies of populism, liberal, or corporatist. In fact, an individual can associate the government's decision on any of these ideologies based on a particular point of view.
Complexities of Defining a Welfare State
The primary challenge associated with defining whether a particular issue or welfare state lies on how it evolved to the current complexity and how it came about. In most cases, states are primarily concerned about the military affairs, law and order, and assisting the citizens to meet their individual goals. For instance, the US government is primarily concerned about the equal distribution of resources. However, different approaches can be used to explain the initiatives or government decisions that the government has made. The proposed cuts to US's welfare and Medicare programs can be associated with liberal welfare regime as per Adele's point of view.
Liberal Welfare Program
The liberal welfare program is characterized by the government's focus on the populace's ability to lead a modest life. Therefore, the citizens have a right to use the universal (public) benefits provided by the government. Such benefits may include insurance schemes and Medicare. In this case, the government encourages the market participants such as production companies and service providers to act as the main co-providers of public benefits. Orloff asserts "In countries with a liberal social policy regime, the market, rather than the state, guarantees most welfare needs of most citizens" (310). However, given that some of these services may be of poor quality for the wealthy, they have an option of paying their bills and even spending in expensive facilities such as hospitals. In fact, that is one of the main reasons as to why saving schemes and private insurance are supported by the state policy which may include tax shelters and tax credits. This means that for the citizens to have a guaranteed performance in terms of meeting their goals, the government must offer a favorable environment for accomplishing such objectives.
Populism and Social Democracy
On the other hand, Ben considers Trump's proposed cuts on welfare and Medicare programs as part of his populist agenda. Social democracy has been the driving force for development and the advancement of the populace's living standards. Therefore, the concept of populism ensures that social rights have been fulfilled. The primary reason for this initiative is that the enjoyment of government provided services is least dependent on one's level of performance in the competitive and demanding environment. The government has a role of subsiding public services to ensure that both rich and the poor have access to the essential social services. For instance, Quadagno opines "The enactment of Medicare in 1965 removed a key constituency, the aged, from the political debate while preserving a profitable segment of the market for private insurers" (39). The initiative was mainly meant to ensure that the elderly have not been subjected to the adverse effects of politics, thus helping them to cater for their medical expenses. Therefore, populism can be considered as a social democracy which is meant to help the poor.
Corporate Ideology and Governance
President Trump's proposed budget can be regarded as a representation of the corporate America. A corporatist welfare type of governance is mainly based on the principle of mutual aid, thus making it necessary for the government to help its citizens without prejudice. Therefore, the US government should enact programs to help the citizens to meet their common needs such as better medical services. Consequently, Courtney considers the government's initiative to be based on the corporate ideology. The government mainly involves itself in activities that can promote equality and raise the living standards of the members of the society.
Government's Role in Social Welfare
All in all, the government has a role in ensuring that its citizens are protected from oppression irrespective of their social statuses. If they are not able to manage their necessary expenses, the government should prioritize on such weaknesses and offer support through catering for the expenses or subsidization. Consequently, an analysis of the three points of view as expressed by Ben, Adele, and Courtney, it can be evidenced that they are valid and can be used for the purposes of government decision making to help the needy members of the society. Nevertheless, the idea of corporatist welfare regime may have a lesser weight as compared to the liberal welfare regime and populism. Therefore, it should be noted that the government has a responsibility of ensuring that the citizens' social welfare has been accomplished as a strategy for guaranteeing the efficient and timely accomplishment of their goals.
Works Cited
Anderson, Benedict. Imagined communities: reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism. London: Verso, 2004.
Esping‐Andersen, Gosta. “The three political economies of the welfare state.” Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue Canadienne de Sociologie 26.1 (1989): 10-36.
Orloff, Ann Shola. “Gender and the social rights of citizenship: The comparative analysis of gender relations and welfare states.” American sociological review (1993): 303-328.
Quadagno, Jill. “Why the United States has no national health insurance: Stakeholder mobilization against the welfare state, 1945-1996.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior (2004): 25-44.
